Information and communication technology all notes | CBSE UGC NET | ICT

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Here I am providing all notes for Information and communication technology- Computer Aptitude
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• AGP –>Accelerated Graphic Port
• PC –>Personal Computer
• EPROM –>Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory
• BIOS –>Basic Input and Output System
• HDD –>Hard Disk Drive
• PCI –>Peripheral Component Interconnect
• UNIVAC –>Universal Automatic Computer
• GUI –>Graphic User Interface
• USB –>Universal Serial Bus
• VGA –>Visual Graphic Adaptor
• MAN –>Metropolitan Area Network
• ASCII –>American Standard Code for Information Interchange
• WAN –>Wide Area Network
• EBCDIC –>Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code
• LAN –>Local Area Network
• EEPROM/EAPROM –>Electrical Erasable/Alterable Programmable Read Only Memory
• CPU –>Central Processing Unit
• OS –>Operating System
• ALU –>Arithmetic and Logic Unit
• DVD –>Digital Versatile Disc
• CD –> Compact Disk
• ROM –>Read Only Memory
• VDU –>Visual Display Unit
• RAM –>Random Access Memory
• ICT –>Information Communication Technology
• PROM –>Programmable Read Only Memory
• URL –>Universal Resource Locator
• IDE –>Integrated Drive Electronics
• FORTRAN –>Formular Translator
• MOS –>Metaoxide Semi Conductor
• ATX –>Advanced Technology Extended
• SIM –>Subscriber Identification Module
• MHZ –>Megahertz
• ISP –>Internet Service Provider
• GHZ –>Gigahertz
• DBMS –>Database Management System
• SQL –>Structured Query Language
• RW –>Re-Writeable
• SDT –>Serial Data Transmission
• CAN –>Campus Area Network
• SIMMs –>Single In-line Memory Module
• PAN –>Personal Area Network
• DIMMs –>Dual In-line Memory Module
• CMOS –>Complimentary Metaoxide Semi Conductor
• ENIAC –>Electronic Number Integrator And Calculator
• CMD –> Command
• EDSAC –>Electronic Dialog Storage Automatic Computer
• MAC –>Media Acces Control
• IC –>Integrated Circuit
• LSIC –>Large Scale Integrated Circuit
• DIR –>Directory
• GIGO –>Gabbage In Gabbage Out
• PHP –>PHP Hypertext Preprocessor
• DOC –>Document
• PDT –>Parallel Data Transmission
• PDA –>Personal Digital Assistant
• USSD –>Unstructured Supplementary Service Data
• WWW –>World Wide Web
• COBOL–>Common Basic Oriented Language
• CCNP –>Cisco Certified Network Professionals
• BASIC –>Beginner All Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code
• CEH –>Certified Ethical Hacking
• TCP –>Transmission Control Protocol
• CSS –> Cascading Style Sheet
• CISCO –>Computer Information System Company
• XXS –>Cross Site Scripting
• XML –>Extensible Mark-up Language
• HTML –>Hypertext Markup Language
• CCNA –>Cisco Certified Network Associate
• RFI –>Remote File Inclusion
• HTTP –>Hypertext Transfer Protocol
• DDOS –>Distribution Denial Of Service
• VPN –>Virtual Private Network
• SEO –>Search Engine Optimization
• IP Internet Protocol

Operating Systems and Data Storage Based

BIOS – This is the Basic Input Output System which controls the computer, telling it what operations to perform. These instructions are on a chip that connects to the motherboard.
BYTE – A byte is a storage unit for data.
- “K” is a Kilobyte which is 1024 bytes.
- “MB” is a Megabyte which is a million bytes.
- “GB” is a Gigabyte, which equals 1000 megabytes.
- CPU – This stands for the Central Processing Unit of the computer. This is like the computer’s brain.
- MAC – This is an abbreviation for Macintosh, which is a type of personal computer made by the Apple Computer company.
- OS – This is the Operating System of the computer. It is the main program that runs on a computer and begins automatically when the computer is turned on.
- PC – This is the abbreviation for personal computer. It refers to computers that are IBM compatible.
- PDF– This represents the Portable Document Format which displays files in a format that is ready for the web.
- RAM – This stands for Random Access Memory which is the space inside the computer that can be accessed at one time. If you increase the Amount of RAM, then you will increase the computer’s speed. This is because more of a particular program is able to be loaded at one time.
- ROM – This is Read Only Memory which is the instruction for the computer and can not be altered.
- VGA – The Video Graphics Array is a system for displaying graphics. It was developed by IBM.
- WYSIWYG – This initialism stands for What You See Is What You Get. It is pronounced “wizziwig” and basically means that the printer will print what you see on your monitor.
Connecting to the Internet Network Based
- FTP – This is a service called File Transport Protocol which moves a file between computers using the Internet.
- HTML – HyperText Markup Language formats information so it can be transported on the Internet.
- HTTP – Hypertext Transfer Protocol is a set of instructions for the software that controls the movement of files on the Internet.
- IP – This stands for Internet Protocol which is the set of rules that govern the systems connected to the Internet. IP Address is a digital code specific to each computer that is hooked up to the Internet.
- ISP – The Internet Service Provider is the company which provides Internet service so you can connect your computer to the Internet.
- LAN – This stands for Local Area Network which is the servers that your computer connects to in your geographic area.
- PPP – Point-to-Point Protocol is the set of rules that allow your computer to use the Internet protocols using a phone line and modem.
- URL – This is the Uniform Resource Locator which is a path to a certain file on the World Wide Web.
- USB – The Universal Serial Bus is used for communications between certain devices. It can connect keyboards, cameras, printers, mice, flash drives, and other devices. Its use has expanded from personal computers to PDAs, smartphones, and video games, and is used as a power cord to connect devices to a wall outlet to charge them.
- VR – Virtual Reality simulates a three-dimensional scene on the computer and has the capability of interaction. This is widely used in gaming.
- VRML – Virtual Reality Mark-up Language allows the display of #D Images.
Some Common Email Abbreviations

Here is a list of email abbreviations that are commonly used to get your point across in less time and fewer keystrokes:
- 2G4U – Too Good For You
- AWHFY – Are We Having Fun Yet?
- AYPI – And Your Point Is?
- GAL – Get A Life
- GMTA – Great Minds Think Alike
- J4F – Just For Fun
- KISS – Keep it Simple, Stupid
- QL – Quit Laughing!
- RUOK – Are you Okay?
- SITD – Still In The Dark
- TIC – Tongue In Cheek
- WYSIWYG – What You See Is What You Get
- YYSSW – Yeah Yeah Sure Sure Whatever
- ZZZ – Sleeping, Bored, Tired
Here are some Computer full forms, If you know more Full forms please share here so that we all know about them as well :)
1. *PAN* - permanent account number.
2. *PDF* - portable document format.
3. *SIM* - Subscriber Identity Module.
4. *ATM* - Automated Teller machine.
5. *IFSC* - Indian Financial System Code.
6. *FSSAI(Fssai)* - Food Safety & Standards Authority of India.
7. *Wi-Fi* - Wireless fidelity.

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8. *GOOGLE* - Global Organization Of Oriented Group Language Of Earth.
9. *YAHOO* - Yet Another Hierarchical Officious Oracle.
10. *WINDOW* - Wide Interactive Network Development for Office work Solution.
11. *COMPUTER* - Common Oriented Machine. Particularly United and used under Technical and Educational Research.
12. *VIRUS* - Vital Information Resources Under Siege.
13. *UMTS* - Universal Mobile Telecommunicati ons System.
14. *AMOLED* - Active-matrix organic light-emitting diode.
15. *OLED* - Organic light-emitting diode.
16. *IMEI* - International Mobile Equipment Identity.
17. *ESN* - Electronic Serial Number.
18. *UPS* - Uninterruptible power supply.
19. *HDMI* - High-Definition Multimedia Interface.
20. *VPN* - Virtual private network.
21. *APN* - Access Point Name.
22. *LED* - Light emitting diode.
23. *DLNA* - Digital Living Network Alliance.
24. *RAM* - Random access memory.
25. *ROM* - Read only memory.
26. *VGA* - Video Graphics Array.
27. *QVGA* - Quarter Video Graphics Array.
28. *WVGA* - Wide video graphics array.
29. *WXGA* - Widescreen Extended Graphics Array.
30. *USB* - Universal serial Bus.
31. *WLAN* - Wireless Local Area Network.
32. *PPI* - Pixels Per Inch.
33. *LCD* - Liquid Crystal Display.
34. *HSDPA* - High speed down-link packet access.
35. *HSUPA* - High-Speed Uplink Packet Access.
36. *HSPA* - High Speed Packet Access.
37. *GPRS* - General Packet Radio Service.
38. *EDGE* - Enhanced Data Rates for Global Evolution.
39. *NFC* - Near field communication.
40. *OTG* - On-the-go.
41. *S-LCD* - Super Liquid Crystal Display.
42. *O.S* - Operating system.
43. *SNS* - Social network service.
44. *H.S* - HOTSPOT.
45. *P.O.I* - Point of interest.
46. *GPS* - Global Positioning System.
47. *DVD* - Digital Video Disk.
48. *DTP* - Desk top publishing.
49. *DNSE* - Digital natural sound engine.
50. *OVI* - Ohio Video Intranet.
51. *CDMA* - Code Division Multiple Access.
52. *WCDMA* - Wide-band Code Division Multiple Access.
53. *GSM* - Global System for Mobile Communications.
54. *DIVX* - Digital internet video access.
55. *APK* - Authenticated public key.
56. *J2ME* - Java 2 micro edition.
57. *SIS* - Installation source.
58. *DELL* - Digital electronic link library.
59. *ACER* - Acquisition Collaboration Experimentation Reflection.
60. *RSS* - Really simple syndication.
61. *TFT* - Thin film transistor.
62. *AMR*- Adaptive Multi-Rate.
63. *MPEG* - moving pictures experts group.
64. *IVRS* - Interactive Voice Response System.
65. *HP* - Hewlett Packard.

*Do we know actual full form of some words???*
66. *News paper =*
_North East West South past and present events report._
67. *Chess =*
_Chariot, Horse, Elephant, Soldiers._
68. *Cold =*
_Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease._
69. *Joke =*
_Joy of Kids Entertainment._
70. *Aim =*
_Ambition in Mind._
71. *Date =*
_Day and Time Evolution._
72. *Eat =*
_Energy and Taste._
73. *Tea =*
_Taste and Energy Admitted._
74. *Pen =*
_Power Enriched in Nib._
75. *Smile =*
_Sweet Memories in Lips Expression._
76. *etc. =*
_End of Thinking Capacity_
77. *OK =*
_Objection Killed_
78. *Or =*
_Orl Korec (Greek Word)_
79. *Bye =*♥
_Be with you Everytime._

Concepts of data representation in digital computers

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Data and instructions cannot be entered and processed directly into computers using human language. Any type of data be it numbers, letters, special symbols, sound or pictures must first be converted into machine-readable form i.e. binary form. Due to this reason, it is important to understand how a computer together with its peripheral devices handles data in its electronic circuits, on magnetic media and in optical devices.

Data representation in digital circuits

Electronic components, such as microprocessor, are made up of millions of electronic circuits. The availability of high voltage(on) in these circuits is interpreted as ‘1’ while a low voltage (off) is interpreted as ‘0’.This concept can be compared to switching on and off an electric circuit. When the switch is closed the high voltage in the circuit causes the bulb to light (‘1’ state).on the other hand when the switch is open, the bulb goes off (‘0’ state). This forms a basis for describing data representation in digital computers using the binary number system.

Data representation on magnetic media

The laser beam reflected from the land is interpreted, as 1.The laser entering the pot is not reflected. This is interpreted as 0.The reflected pattern of light from the rotating disk falls on a receiving photoelectric detector that transforms the patterns into digital form. The presence of a magnetic field in one direction on magnetic media is interpreted as 1; while the field in the opposite direction is interpreted as “0”.Magnetic technology is mostly used on storage devices that are coated with special magnetic materials such as iron oxide. Data is written on the media by arranging the magnetic dipoles of some iron oxide particles to face in the same direction and some others in the opposite direction

Data representation on optical media

In optical devices, the presence of light is interpreted as ‘1’ while its absence is interpreted as ‘0’.Optical devices use this technology to read or store data. Take example of a CD-ROM, if the shiny surface is placed under a powerful microscope, the surface is observed to have very tiny holes called pits. The areas that do not have pits are called land.

Reason for use of binary system in computers

It has proved difficult to develop devices that can understand natural language directly due to the complexity of natural languages. However, it is easier to construct electric circuits based on the binary or ON and OFF logic. All forms of data can be represented in binary system format. Other reasons for the use of binary are that digital devices are more reliable, small and use less energy as compared to analog devices.

Bits, bytes, nibble and word

The terms bits, bytes, nibble and word are used widely in reference to computer memory and data size.
Bits: can be defined as either a binary, which can be 0, or 1.It is the basic unit of data or information in digital computers.

Byte: a group of bits (8 bits) used to represent a character. A byte is considered as the basic unit of measuring memory size in computer.
A nibble: is half a byte, which is usually a grouping of 4 bits.

Word: two or more bits make a word. The term word length is used as the measure of the number of bits in each word. For example, a word can have a length of 16 bits, 32 bits, 64 bits etc.

Conversion table
Traditional units					Decimal for comparison
Name	Symbol	Binary	Number of bytes	Equal to	Name	IEC	Decimal	Number of bits	Equal to
Kilobyte	kB	2¹⁰	1,024	1024 B	Kilobit	kbit	10³	1,000	1000 bit
Megabyte	MB	2²⁰	1,048,576	1024 kB	Megabit	Mbit	10⁶	1,000,000	1000 kbit
Gigabyte	GB	2³⁰	1,073,741,824	1024 MB	Gigabit	Gbit	10⁹	1,000,000,000	1000 Mbit
Terabyte	TB	2⁴⁰	1,099,511,627,776	1024 GB	Terabit	Tbit	10¹²	1,000,000,000,000	1000 Gbit
Petabyte	PB	2⁵⁰	1,125,899,906,842,624	1024 TB	Petabit	Pbit	10¹⁵	1,000,000,000,000,000	1000 Tbit
Exabyte	EB	2⁶⁰	1,152,921,504,606,846,976	1024 PB	Exabit	Ebit	10¹⁸	1,000,000,000,000,000,000	1000 Pbit
Zettabyte	ZB	2⁷⁰	1,180,591,620,717,411,303,424	1024 EB	Zettabit	Zbit	10²¹	1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000	1000 Ebit
Yottabyte^[	YB	2⁸⁰	1,208,925,819,614,629,174,706,176	1024 ZB	Yottabit	Ybit	10²⁴	1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000	1000 Zbit

1. Number Systems

Human beings use decimal (base 10) and duodecimal (base 12) number systems for counting and measurements (probably because we have 10 fingers and two big toes). Computers use binary (base 2) number system, as they are made from binary digital components (known as transistors) operating in two states - on and off. In computing, we also use hexadecimal (base 16) or octal (base 8) number systems, as a compact form for represent binary numbers.

1.1 Decimal (Base 10) Number System

Decimal number system has ten symbols: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9, called digits. It uses positional notation. That is, the least-significant digit (right-most digit) is of the order of 10^0 (units or ones), the second right-most digit is of the order of 10^1 (tens), the third right-most digit is of the order of 10^2 (hundreds), and so on. For example,

735 = 7×10^2 + 3×10^1 + 5×10^0

We shall denote a decimal number with an optional suffix D if ambiguity arises.

1.2 Binary (Base 2) Number System

Binary number system has two symbols: 0 and 1, called bits. It is also a positional notation, for example,

10110B = 1×2^4 + 0×2^3 + 1×2^2 + 1×2^1 + 0×2^0

We shall denote a binary number with a suffix B. Some programming languages denote binary numbers with prefix 0b (e.g., 0b1001000), or prefix bwith the bits quoted (e.g., b'10001111').

A binary digit is called a bit. Eight bits is called a byte (why 8-bit unit? Probably because 8=2³).

1.3 Hexadecimal (Base 16) Number System

Hexadecimal number system uses 16 symbols: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4,5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, and F, called hex digits. It is a positional notation, for example,

A3EH = 10×16^2 + 3×16^1 + 14×16^0

We shall denote a hexadecimal number (in short, hex) with a suffix H. Some programming languages denote hex numbers with prefix 0x (e.g., 0x1A3C5F), or prefix x with hex digit quoted (e.g., x'C3A4D98B').

Each hexadecimal digit is also called a hex digit. Most programming languages accept lowercase 'a' to 'f' as well as uppercase 'A' to 'F'.

Computers uses binary system in their internal operations, as they are built from binary digital electronic components. However, writing or reading a long sequence of binary bits is cumbersome and error-prone. Hexadecimal system is used as a compact form or shorthand for binary bits. Each hexdigit is equivalent to 4 binary bits, i.e., shorthand for 4 bits, as follows:

0H (0000B) (0D)	1H (0001B) (1D)	2H (0010B) (2D)	3H (0011B) (3D)
4H (0100B) (4D)	5H (0101B) (5D)	6H (0110B) (6D)	7H (0111B) (7D)
8H (1000B) (8D)	9H (1001B) (9D)	AH (1010B) (10D)	BH (1011B) (11D)
CH (1100B) (12D)	DH (1101B) (13D)	EH (1110B) (14D)	FH (1111B) (15D)

1.4 Conversion from Hexadecimal to Binary

Replace each hex digit by the 4 equivalent bits, for examples,

A3C5H = 1010 0011 1100 0101B

102AH = 0001 0000 0010 1010B

1.5 Conversion from Binary to Hexadecimal

Starting from the right-most bit (least-significant bit), replace each group of 4 bits by the equivalent hex digit (pad the left-most bits with zero if necessary), for examples,

1001001010B = 0010 0100 1010B = 24AH

10001011001011B = 0010 0010 1100 1011B = 22CBH

It is important to note that hexadecimal number provides a compact form or shorthand for representing binary bits.

1.6 Conversion from Base r to Decimal (Base 10)

Given a n-digit base r number: dn-1 dn-2 dn-3 ... d3 d2 d1 d0 (base r), the decimal equivalent is given by:

dn-1 × r^(n-1) + dn-2 × r^(n-2) + ... + d1 × r^1 + d0 × r^0

For examples,

A1C2H = 10×16^3 + 1×16^2 + 12×16^1 + 2 = 41410 (base 10)

10110B = 1×2^4 + 1×2^2 + 1×2^1 = 22 (base 10)

1.7 Conversion from Decimal (Base 10) to Base r

Use repeated division/remainder. For example,

To convert 261D to hexadecimal:

  261/16 => quotient=16 remainder=5

  16/16  => quotient=1  remainder=0

  1/16   => quotient=0  remainder=1 (quotient=0 stop)

  Hence, 261D = 105H

The above procedure is actually applicable to conversion between any 2 base systems. For example,

To convert 1023(base 4) to base 3:

  1023(base 4)/3 => quotient=25D remainder=0

  25D/3          => quotient=8D  remainder=1

  8D/3           => quotient=2D  remainder=2

  2D/3           => quotient=0   remainder=2 (quotient=0 stop)

  Hence, 1023(base 4) = 2210(base 3)

1.8 General Conversion between 2 Base Systems with Fractional Part

1. Separate the integral and the fractional parts.

2. For the integral part, divide by the target radix repeatably, and collect the ramainder in reverse order.

3. For the fractional part, multiply the fractional part by the target radix repeatably, and collect the integral part in the same order.

Example 1:

Convert 18.6875D to binary

Integral Part = 18D

  18/2 => quotient=9 remainder=0

  9/2  => quotient=4 remainder=1

  4/2  => quotient=2 remainder=0

  2/2  => quotient=1 remainder=0

  1/2  => quotient=0 remainder=1 (quotient=0 stop)

  Hence, 18D = 10010B

Fractional Part = .6875D

  .6875*2=1.375 => whole number is 1

  .375*2=0.75   => whole number is 0

  .75*2=1.5     => whole number is 1

  .5*2=1.0      => whole number is 1

  Hence .6875D = .1011B

Therefore, 18.6875D = 10010.1011B

Example 2:

Convert 18.6875D to hexadecimal

Integral Part = 18D

  18/16 => quotient=1 remainder=2

  1/16  => quotient=0 remainder=1 (quotient=0 stop)

  Hence, 18D = 12H

Fractional Part = .6875D

  .6875*16=11.0 => whole number is 11D (BH)

  Hence .6875D = .BH

Therefore, 18.6875D = 12.BH

1.9 Exercises (Number Systems Conversion)

1. Convert the following decimal numbers into binary and hexadecimal numbers:

a. 108

b. 4848

c. 9000

2. Convert the following binary numbers into hexadecimal and decimal numbers:

. 1000011000

a. 10000000

b. 101010101010

3. Convert the following hexadecimal numbers into binary and decimal numbers:

. ABCDE

a. 1234

b. 80F

4. Convert the following decimal numbers into binary equivalent:

. 19.25D

a. 123.456D

Answers: You could use the Windows' Calculator (calc.exe) to carry out number system conversion, by setting it to the scientific mode. (Run "calc" ⇒ Select "View" menu ⇒ Choose "Programmer" or "Scientific" mode.)

1. 1101100B, 1001011110000B, 10001100101000B, 6CH, 12F0H, 2328H.

2. 218H, 80H, AAAH, 536D, 128D, 2730D.

3. 10101011110011011110B, 1001000110100B, 100000001111B, 703710D, 4660D, 2063D.

4. ??

2. Computer Memory & Data Representation

Computer uses a fixed number of bits to represent a piece of data, which could be a number, a character, or others. A n-bit storage location can represent up to 2^n distinct entities. For example, a 3-bit memory location can hold one of these eight binary patterns: 000, 001, 010, 011, 100, 101, 110, or 111. Hence, it can represent at most 8 distinct entities. You could use them to represent numbers 0 to 7, numbers 8881 to 8888, characters 'A' to 'H', or up to 8 kinds of fruits like apple, orange, banana; or up to 8 kinds of animals like lion, tiger, etc.

Integers, for example, can be represented in 8-bit, 16-bit, 32-bit or 64-bit. You, as the programmer, choose an appropriate bit-length for your integers. Your choice will impose constraint on the range of integers that can be represented. Besides the bit-length, an integer can be represented in various representation schemes, e.g., unsigned vs. signed integers. An 8-bit unsigned integer has a range of 0 to 255, while an 8-bit signed integer has a range of -128 to 127 - both representing 256 distinct numbers.

It is important to note that a computer memory location merely stores a binary pattern. It is entirely up to you, as the programmer, to decide on how these patterns are to be interpreted. For example, the 8-bit binary pattern "0100 0001B" can be interpreted as an unsigned integer 65, or an ASCII character 'A', or some secret information known only to you. In other words, you have to first decide how to represent a piece of data in a binary pattern before the binary patterns make sense. The interpretation of binary pattern is called data representation or encoding. Furthermore, it is important that the data representation schemes are agreed-upon by all the parties, i.e., industrial standards need to be formulated and straightly followed.

Once you decided on the data representation scheme, certain constraints, in particular, the precision and range will be imposed. Hence, it is important to understand data representation to write correct and high-performance programs.

Types of data representation

Computers not only process numbers, letters and special symbols but also complex types of data such as sound and pictures. However, these complex types of data take a lot of memory and processor time when coded in binary form.
This limitation necessitates the need to develop better ways of handling long streams of binary digits.
Higher number systems are used in computing to reduce these streams of binary digits into manageable form. This helps to improve the processing speed and optimize memory usage. Number systems and their representation

A number system is a set of symbols used to represent values derived from a common base or radix.
As far as computers are concerned, number systems can be classified into two major categories:
decimal number system
binary number system
octal number system
hexadecimal number system

Decimal number system

The term decimal is derived from a Latin prefix deci, which means ten. Decimal number system has ten digits ranging from 0-9. Because this system has ten digits; it is also called a base ten number system or denary number system.
A decimal number should always be written with a subscript 10 e.g. X₁₀
But since this is the most widely used number system in the world, the subscript is usually understood and ignored in written work. However ,when many number systems are considered together, the subscript must always be put so as to differentiate the number systems.
The magnitude of a number can be considered using these parameters.
Absolute value
Place value or positional value
Base value

The absolute value is the magnitude of a digit in a number. for example the digit 5 in 7458 has an absolute value of 5 according to its value in the number line.
The place value of a digit in a number refers to the position of the digit in that number i.e. whether; tens, hundreds, thousands etc.
The total value of a number is the sum of the place value of each digit making the number.
The base value of a number also k known as the radix, depends on the type of the number systems that is being used .The value of any number depends on the radix. for example the number 100₁₀ is not equivalent to 100₂.

Binary number system

It uses two digits namely, 1 and 0 to represent numbers. unlike in decimal numbers where the place value goes up in factors of ten, in binary system, the place values increase by the factor of 2.binary numbers are written as X₂.consider a binary number such as 1011₂.The right most digit has a place value of 1×2⁰ while the left most has a place value of 1×2³.Octal number system

Consists of eight digits ranging from 0-7.the place value of octal numbers goes up in factors of eight from right to left.

Hexadecimal number systemThis is a base 16 number system that consists of sixteen digits ranging from 0-9 and letters A-F where A is equivalent to 10,B to 11 up to F which is equivalent to 15 in base ten system. The place value of hexadecimal numbers goes up in factors of sixteen.

A hexadecimal number can be denoted using 16 as a subscript or capital letter H to the right of the number .For example, 94B can be written as 94B16 or 94BH.

Further conversion of numbers from one number system to another

To convert numbers from one system to another. the following conversions will be considered.

Converting between binary and decimal numbers.
Converting octal numbers to decimal and binary form.
Converting hexadecimal numbers to decimal and binary form.

1. a) Conversion between binary and decimal number

2. Converting binary numbers to decimal numbers

To convert a binary number to a decimal number, we proceed as follows:

First, write the place values starting from the right hand side.
Write each digit under its place value.
Multiply each digit by its corresponding place value.
Add up the products. The answer will be the decimal number in base ten.

EXAMPLE

Convert 101101₂ to base 10(or decimal) number

Place value	2⁵	2⁴	2³	2²	2¹	2⁰
Binary digits	1	0	1	1	0	1

Multiply each digit by its place value

N₁₀=(1*2⁵) +(0*2⁴)+(1*2³)+(1*2²)+(0*2¹)+(1*2⁰)

N₁₀=32+0+8+4+0+1

=45₁₀

32*1=32

16*0=0

8*1=8 4*1=4

2*0=0

1*1=1

=45₁₀

Note: remember to indicate the base subscript since it is the value that distinguishes the different systems.

The binary equivalent of the fractional part is extracted from the products by reading the respective integral digits from the top downwards as shown by the arrow next page.
Combine the two parts together to set the binary equivalent.

Convert 0.375₁₀ into binary form

Read this digits

0.375×2=0.750

0.750×2=1.500

0.500×2=1.000 (fraction becomes zero)

Therefore 0.375₁₀=0.011₂

NB: When converting a real number from binary to decimal, work out the integral part and the fractional parts separately then combine them.

Example

Convert 11.011₂ to a decimal number.

Solution

Convert the integral and the fractional parts separately then add them up.

2×1= 2.000

1×1= +1.000

3.000₁₀

Weight	2¹	2⁰	.	2^-1	2^-2	2^-3
Binary digit	1	1	.	0	1	1
Values in base 10	2	1	.	0	0.25	0.125

0.50×0 =0.000

0.25×1 =0.250

0.125×1=+0.125

0.375₁₀

3.000₁₀+0.375₁₀= 3.375₁₀

Thus 11.011₂=3.375₁₀

1. iv) Converting a decimal fraction to binary

Divide the integral part continuously by 2.For the fractional part, proceed as follows:

Multiply the fractional part by 2 and note down the product

Take the fractional part of the immediate product and multiply it by 2 again.
Continue this process until the fractional part of the subsequent product is 0 or starts to repeat itself.

The following examples illustrate how to convert hexadecimal number to a decimal number Example: Convert octal number 321₈to its binary equivalent
Solution
Working from left to the right, each octal number is represented using three digits and then combined we get the final binary equivalent. Therefore:
3=011₂
2=010₂
1=001₂
Combining the three from left to right

3	2	1
011	010	001

321₈=011010001₂
Converting binary numbers to hexadecimal numbers

To convert binary numbers to their binary equivalents, simply group the digits of the binary number into groups of four from right to left e.g. 11010001.The next step is to write the hexadecimal equivalent of each group e.g.

1101- D
0001- 1
The equivalent of 11010001 is D1H or D1₁₆
Converting hexadecimal numbers to decimal and binary numbers.
Converting hexadecimal numbers to decimal number

To convert hexadecimal number to base 10 equivalent we proceed as follows:

3. First, write the place values starting from the right hand side.

4. If a digit is a letter such as ‘A’ write its decimal equivalent

Multiply each hexadecimal digit with its corresponding place value and then add the products

The binary equivalent of the fractional part is extracted from the products by reading the respective integral digits from the top downwards as shown by the arrow next pag

Combine the two parts together to set the binary equivalent.

Convert 0.375₁₀ into binary form

Read this digits

0.375×2=0.750

0.750×2=1.500

0.500×2=1.000 (fraction becomes zero)

Therefore 0.375₁₀=0.011₂

Converting octal numbers to decimal and binary numbers

Converting octal numbers to decimal numbers

To convert a base 8 number to its decimal equivalent we use the same method as we did with binary numbers. However, it is important to note that the maximum absolute value of a octal digit is 7.For example 982 Is not a valid octal number because digit 9 is not an octal digit, but 736₈is valid because all the digits are in the range 0-7.Example shows how to convert an octal number to a decimal number.

Example 1.13

Convert 512₈to its base 10 equivalent

Solution

Place value	8²	8¹	8⁰
Place value	64	8	1
Octal digit	5	1	2

Write each number under its place value as shown below

Multiply each number by its place value.

N₁₀=(5 x 8²)+(1 x 8¹)+(2 x 8⁰)

=(5 x 64)+8+2

=320+8+2

N₁₀=330₁₀

64 x 5=320

8 x 1= 8

1 x 2=+ 2

330

Therefore512₈=330₁₀

Converting octal numbers to binary numbers

To convert an octal number to binary, each digit is represented by three binary digits because the maximum octal digit i.e. 7 can be represented with a maximum of seven digits. See table:

Octal digit	Binary equivalents
0	000
1	001
2	010
3	011
4	100
5	101
6	110
7	111

Example

Convert the hexadecimal number 111₁₆to its binary equivalent.

Solution

Place each number under its place value.

16²	16¹	16⁰
1	1	1

256 x1= 256

16 x 1 = 16

1 x 1= + 1

273

Therefore 111₁₆=273₁₀

Example

Convert octal number 321₈to its binary equivalent

Solution

Working from left to the right, each octal number is represented using three digits and then combined we get the final binary equivalent. Therefore:

3=011₂

2=010₂

1=001₂

Combining the three from left to right

3	2	1
011	010	001

321₈=011010001₂

Converting binary numbers to hexadecimal numbers

To convert binary numbers to their binary equivalents, simply group the digits of the binary number into groups of four from right to left e.g. 11010001.The next step is to write the hexadecimal equivalent of each group e.g.

1101- D

0001- 1

The equivalent of 11010001 is D1H or D1₁₆

Converting hexadecimal numbers to decimal and binary numbers.

Converting hexadecimal numbers to decimal number

To convert hexadecimal number to base 10 equivalent we proceed as follows:

First, write the place values starting from the right hand side.

1. If a digit is a letter such as ‘A’ write its decimal equivalent

Multiply each hexadecimal digit with its corresponding place value and then add the products

The following examples illustrate how to convert hexadecimal number to a decimal number

Example

Convert the hexadecimal number 111₁₆to its binary equivalent

Solution

Place each number under its place value.

16²	16¹	16⁰
1	1	1

256 x1= 256

16 x 1 = 16

1 x 1= + 1

273

Therefore 111₁₆=273₁₀

Converting hexadecimal numbers to binary numbers

Since F is equivalent to a binary number1111₂the hexadecimal number are therefore represented using4 digits as shown in the table below

Hexadecimal digit	Decimal equivalent	Binary equivalent
00	00	0000
01	01	0001
02	02	0010
03	03	0011
04	04	0100
05	05	0101
06	06	0110
07	07	0111
08	08	1000
09	09	1001
A	10	1010
B	11	1011
C	12	1100
D	13	1101
E	14	1110
F	15	1111

The simplest method of converting a hexadecimal number to binary is to express each hexadecimal digit as a four bit binary digit number and then arranging the group according to their corresponding positions as shown in example

Example 1

Convert 321₁₆

Hexadecimal digit	3	2	1
Binary equivalent	0011	0010	0001

Combining the three sets of bits, we get 001100100001₂

321₁₆ = 001100100001₂

Example 2

Convert 5E6₁₆ into binary

Hexadecimal digit

	5	E	6
Binary equivalent	0101	1110	0110

5E616 = 010111100110₂

Symbolic representation using coding schemes

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In computing, a single character such as a letter, a number or a symbol is represented by a group of bits. The number of bits per character depends on the coding scheme used.
The most common coding schemes are:
Binary Coded Decimal (BCD),
Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code (EBCDIC) and
American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII).

Binary Coded Decimal

Binary Coded Decimal is a 4-bit code used to represent numeric data only. For example, a number like 9 can be represented using Binary Coded Decimal as 1001₂.
Binary Coded Decimal is mostly used in simple electronic devices like calculators and microwaves. This is because it makes it easier to process and display individual numbers on their Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) screens.
A standard Binary Coded Decimal, an enhanced format of Binary Coded Decimal, is a 6-bit representation scheme which can represent non-numeric characters. This allows 64 characters to be represented. For letter A can be represented as 110001₂ using standard Binary Coded Decimal

Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange code (EBCDIC)

Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange code (EBCDIC) is an 8-bit character-coding scheme used primarily on IBM computers. A total of 256 (2⁸) characters can be coded using this scheme. For example, the symbolic representation of letter A using Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange code is 11000001₂.

American standard code for information interchange (ASCII)

American standard code for information interchange (ASCII) is a 7-bit code, which means that only 128 characters i.e. 2⁷ can be represented. However, manufactures have added an eight bit to this coding scheme, which can now provide for 256 characters.
This 8-bit coding scheme is referred to as an 8-bit American standard code for information interchange. The symbolic representation of letter A using this scheme is 1000001₂..

Binary arithmetic operations

In mathematics, the four basic arithmetic operations applied on numbers are addition, subtraction, multiplications and division.
In computers, the same operations are performed inside the central processing unit by the arithmetic and logic unit (ALU). However, the arithmetic and logic unit cannot perform binary subtractions directly. It performs binary subtractions using a process known as For multiplication and division, the arithmetic and logic unit uses a method called shifting before adding the bits.

Representation of signed binary numbers

In computer technology, there are three common ways of representing a signed binary number.

1. Prefixing an extra sign bit to a binary number.

2. Using ones compliment.

3. Using twos compliment.

Prefixing an extra sign bit to a binary number

In decimal numbers, a signed number has a prefix “+” for a positive number e.g. +27₁₀and “-“ for a negative number e.g.^-27
However, in binary, a negative number may be represented by prefixing a digit 1 to the number while a positive number may be represented by prefixing a digit 0. For example, the 7-bit binary equivalent of 127 is 1111111₂. To indicate that it is positive, we add an extra bit (0) to the left of the number i.e. (0)1111111₂.
To indicate that it is negative number we add an extra bit (1) i.e. (1)1111111₂.
The problem of using this method is that the zero can be represented in two ways i.e.(0)0000000₂ and (1)0000000₂.

Ones compliment

The term compliment refers to a part which together with another makes up a whole. For example in geometry two complimentary angle (90⁰).
The idea of compliment is used to address the problem of signed numbers i.e. positive and negative.
In decimal numbers (0 to 9), we talk of nine’s compliment. For example the nines compliment
Of 9 is 0, that of 5 is 4 while 3 is 6.
However, in binary numbers, the ones compliment is the bitwise NOT applied to the number. Bitwise NOT is a unary operator (operation on only one operand) that performs logical negation on each bit. For example the bitwise NOT of 1100₂ is 0011₂e.
0s are negated to 1s while 1s are negated to 0s.

Twos compliment

Twos compliment, equivalent to tens compliment in decimal numbers, is the most popular way of representing negative numbers in computer systems. The advantages of using this method are:

1. There are no two ways of representing a zero as in the case with other two methods.

2. Effective addition and subtraction can be done even with numbers that are represented with a sign bit without a need for circuitries to examine the sign of an operand.

The twos compliment of a number is obtained by getting the ones compliment then adding a 1. For example, to get the twos compliment of a decimal number 45_10,
First convert it to its binary equivalent then find its ones compliment. Add a 1 to ones compliment i.e.

45₁₀=00101101₂

Bitwise NOT (00101101) =11010010

Two’s compliment = 11010010₂+1₂

= 11010011₂

Binary addition

The five possible additions in binary are

1. 0 + 0 = 0

2. 0+ 1₂ = 1₂

3. 1₂ + 0 = 1₂

4. 1₂ + 1₂ = 10₂ (read as 0, carry 1)

5. 1₂ + 1₂ + 1₂ = 11₂ (read as 1, carry 1)Example 1
Find the sum of 111₂ + 011₂
Solution
Arrange the bits vertically. 111
Working from the right to the left, we proceed as follows: + 011
Step 1 1₂ + 1₂ = 10₂, (write down 0 and carry 1) 1010₂
Step 2 1₂ + 1₂ + 1₂ = 11₂, (add and carry over digit to 1 + 1 in order to get 1 + 1
+1. From the sum, write down digit one the carry
Forward)
Step 3 1₂ + 1₂ + 0₂ = 10₂, (add the carry over digit to 1 + 0 in order to get
1 + 1 + 0.since this is the last step, write down 10)
Therefore 111₂ + 011₂ = 1010₂
This can be summarized in the table

1^st number	1	1	1
2^nd number	0	1	1
Carry digit	-	1	1
sum	10	1	0

6. Example 2
Add the following binary number
10110₂
1011₂
+ 111₂
Solution
Add the first two numbers and then add the sum to the third number a follows:
Step 1 Step 2
10110₂ 100001₂
+ 1011₂ + 111₂
100001₂101000₂

Convert Negative Numbers to Binary

Step 1: Divide Until You Reach Zero

Example

Take the number, ignore the negative sign, and divide the number by 2 and write down the remainder to the right as shown in the picture. (In the picture 'R' stands for the remainder.) Even if the remainder is 0, write it down to the right. Now, keep dividing each quotient by 2 until zero is the quotient and keep writing down the remainder to the right. It is better to continue this division downward by writing down each quotient under the previous quotient as shown in picture.

If you have trouble dividing the number use a calculator. In the calculator, when you divide a number by 2, you will either get a whole number(ex: 22) or get a number ending in .5(ex: 22.5). If the quotient is a whole number it means that the remainder is 0 and if the quotient ends in .5 it means that the remainder is 1. As you are dividing, make sure all the remainders are either 1 or 0. When you are finished check to make sure that the number of times you divide equals the number of remainders you have to the right. In the example, notice that the number has been divided 9 times and there are 9 remainders written to the right.

Step 2: Derive Result

Example

Write down the remainders bottom to top linearly to get a sequence of 1s and 0s (binary sequence), as shown in the picture. Make sure that the length of the binary sequence is equal to the number of remainders you have written to the right of your division.

Now, starting at the end of the binary sequence draw a long line every 4 numbers. Refer to the picture if you have any confusion.

Step 3: Extend Binary Sequence

The size of the binary sequence can either be a double word, word, or a byte, which are 32, 16, and 8 bits respectively. 32, 16 or 8 are the number of binary numbers( 1s or 0s), you will have in your final answer. Most times if the problem asks us to find the double word/word-length/ byte-length binary representation of a number we extend the answer to their size with 0s.

Byte = 8 bits = 8 numbers in binary sequence

Word = 16 bits = 16 numbers in binary sequence

Double Word = 32 bits = 32 numbers in binary sequence

Few examples on extending:

- If our binary sequence ends up being 111 1000, and we are told to find the byte-length binary representation we add an extra zero to the beginning, so that the final binary sequence is: 0111 1000. We add one zero to the front because our binary sequence had only 7 numbers and a byte requires 8 numbers and 8 - 7 = 1.

- If our binary sequence ends up being 01 0111 1000, and we are told to find the word-length binary representation we add six zeros to the beginning, so that the final binary sequence is: 0000 0001 0111 1000. We add six zeros to the front because our binary sequence had only 10 numbers and a byte requires 16 numbers and 16 - 10 = 6.

Example

In our example, the binary sequence we have is 1 0100 1000, and we are told to find the word-length binary representation. There are 9 numbers in this binary sequence and we need there to be 16 numbers in the sequence. So, we add seven zeros to the beginning of the binary sequence (16 - 9 = 7).

Step 4: 1’s Complement Representation

2's Complement notation is how every computer represents negative integers. To get the two's complement notation of a negative integer, you write out the number in binary, invert the digits, and then add one.

Example

Draw a line under the binary sequence from previous step and flip each bit(under each 1 write down a 0 and under each 0 write down a 1). The new “flipped” binary sequence should be the same length as the previous binary sequence.

Step 5: Add One

There is one important rule to binary addition. If we are adding a 1 and a 1 it is equal to 10, not 2. So when we add 1 and 1, we place 0 in the answer box and carry the 1 (add as if you are adding 10 to normal numbers).

Example

See the example in the picture, if you have any confusion on how to add.

Step 6: Final Answer Format

There are 3 ways to represent numbers in computer science: binary, hexadecimal and decimal. Decimal is the way we represent numbers in every day life and has a base 10. Hexadecimal, like binary is another way we represent numbers and has a base 16. Binary has a base of 2.

Decimal ---> Base 10

Hexadecimal --> Base 16

Binary --> Base 2

These are examples of converting an eight-bit two's complement number to decimal. To do this, you first check if the number is negative or positive by looking at the sign bit. If it is positive, simply convert it to decimal. If it is negative, make it positive by inverting the bits and adding one. Then, convert the result to decimal. The negative of this number is the value of the original binary.

· Interpret 11011011 as a two's complement binary number, and give its decimal equivalent.

1. First, note that the number is negative, since it starts with a 1.

2. Change the sign to get the magnitude of the number.

	1	1	0	1	1	0	1	1
¬	0	0	1	0	0	1	0	0
+								1
	0	0	1	0	0	1	0	1

3. Convert the magnitude to decimal: 00100101₂ = 25₁₆ = 2×16 + 5 = 37₁₀.

4. Since the original number was negative, the final result is -37.

· Interpret 01101001 as a two's complement binary number, and give its decimal equivalent. The number is positive, so simply convert it to decimal: 01101001₂ = 69₁₆ = 6×16 + 9 = 105₁₀.

· Interpret 11110010 as a two's complement binary number, and give its decimal equivalent.

	1	1	1	1	0	0	1	0
¬	0	0	0	0	1	1	0	1
+								1
	0	0	0	0	1	1	1	0

· 00001110₂ = e₁₆ = 0×16 + 14 = 14₁₀. Answer: -14.

· Interpret 10011100 as a two's complement binary number, and give its decimal equivalent.

	1	0	0	1	1	1	0	0
¬	0	1	1	0	0	0	1	1
+								1
	0	1	1	0	0	1	0	0

· 01100100₂ = 64₁₆ = 6×16 + 4 = 100₁₀. Answer: -100.

· Interpret 01010111 as a two's complement binary number, and give its decimal equivalent. 01010111₂ = 57₁₆ = 5×16 + 7 = 87₁₀.

Let's say you want to store non-negative numbers on 8 bits.

· `00000000` is 0,

· `00000001` is 1,

· `00000010` is 2,

· `00000011` is 3,

· `00000100` is 4,

· ...

· `11111111` is 255

So you can store numbers in range 0-255 on 8 bits. 255 = 2⁸ - 1. (2 is the base of binary system, 8 is the number of bits, 1 is subtracted because we want to count 0 in)

Now, let's say you want to store negative numbers too. How can we achieve that? We can dedicate one bit for sign. If this bit is 0 then we interpret other 7 bits as a positive number, otherwise as a negative number. It's best to use most significant bit for sign because it makes some operations easier.

· Trivial approach: Just read a number as-is:

· `00000001` == 1 and `10000001` == -1

· `01000010` == 66 and `11000010` == -66

· `01111111` == 127 and `11111111` == -127

· Ones' complement: For any number x, negating its binary representation yields binary representation of -x. This means that:

· `00000001` == 1 and `11111110` == -1

· `01000010` == 66 and `10111101` == -66

· `01111111` == 127 and `10000000` == -127

· Two's complement: For any number x,negating its binary representation and adding 1 yields binary representationof -x. This means that:

· `00000001` == 1 and `11111111` == -1

· `01000010` == 66 and `10111110` == -66

· `01111111` == 127 and `1000001` == -127

· `10000000` == -128

Why is two's complement the best?

· Because it has the widest range: -128...127, while trivial approach and ones' complement have -127...127

· Zero is well defined:

· In two's complement only `00000000` is zero

· In trivial approach both `00000000` and `10000000` are zero

· In ones' complement both `00000000` and `11111111` are zero

· Addition and subtraction is identical as with unsigned numbers, so CPU doesn't need additional instructions for adding signed numbers.

Note that if we dedicate most significant bit for sign bit, then we can't convert number to binary without knowing how many bits we will need. For example is we have 4 bits, then the number -5 in trivial approach is 1101, on 7 bits it would be 1000101. 0001101 (4-bit -5 padded with zeros to 7 bits length) is actually 13 (most significant bit is 0, so it's positive).

Binary subtraction

Direct subtraction

The four possible subtractions in binary are:

1. 0 – 0 = 0

2. 1₂ – 0 = 1₂

3. 1₂– 1₂= 0

4. 10₂ – 1₂ = 1₂( borrow 1 from the next most significant digit to make 0 become 10₂,

hence 10₂– 1₂ = 1₂)

Subtraction using ones compliment

The main purpose of using ones compliment in computers is to perform binary subtraction. For example to get the difference in 5 – 3, using the ones compliment, we proceed as follows:

1. Rewrite the problem as 5 + (-3) to show that he computer binary subtraction by adding the binary equivalent of 5 to ones compliment of 3.

2. Convert the absolute value of 3 into 8-bits equivalent i.e. 00000011₂.

3. Take the ones compliment of 00000011₂e. 11111100₂ which is the binary representation of -3₁₀.

4. Add the binary equivalent of 5 to ones compliment of 3 i.e.

00000101

+ 11111000

(1)00000001

Subtraction using twos compliments.

Like in ones compliment, the twos compliment of a number is obtained by negating a positive number to is negative counterpart. For example to get the difference in 5-3, using twos compliment, we proceed as follow:

1. rewrite the problem as 5 + (-3)

2. Convert the absolute value of 3 into 8-bit binary equivalent i.e. 00000011.

3. Take the ones compliment of 00000011 i.e. 11111100.

4. add a 1 to the ones compliment i.e. 11111100 to get 11111101

5. add he binary equivalent of 5 to the twos compliment of 3 i.e.

00000101

+ 11111001

(1)00000010 Ignoring the overflow bit, the resulting number is 00000010, which is directly read as a binary equivalent of +2.

Example

Using twos compliment

31₁₀- 17₁₀in binary form.

Solution

17₁₀ in binary 00010001

1’s compliment 11101110

2’s compliment 11101111

31₁₀ = 00011111₂

00011111 + 11101111 = (1)00001110₂

Previous Year Question With Answers JUNE 2006 to JAN 2017

2006 june

1 Using websites to pour out one's grievances is called:

(A) cyber venting

(B) cyber ranting

(C) web hate

(D) web plea

Answer: (A)

The term invented for this is cyberventing: venting your anger by electronic means. Some employers have even set up official grousing sites on internal Web systems, reasoning that it’s better to get the complaints out in the open than have problems fester in the dark. The term has also been applied to Web sites set up by people who are angry at the treatment they’ve received from retailers or suppliers, and also to the mass e-mailing of staff by aggrieved ex-workers, such as in a recent case at Intel.

 cyberventing है: इलेक्ट्रॉनिक साधनों से अपना क्रोध उगलाना कुछ नियोक्ताओं ने आंतरिक वेब सिस्टम पर आधिकारिक गड़बड़ करने वाली साइटें स्थापित की हैं, ये तर्क देते हैं कि शिकायतें अंधेरे में परेशान होने की तुलना में खुली में शिकायतें प्राप्त करना बेहतर है। इस शब्द को उन लोगों द्वारा स्थापित वेबसाइटों पर भी लागू किया गया है जो खुदरा विक्रेताओं या आपूर्तिकर्ताओं से प्राप्त हुए इलाज के कारण गुस्से में हैं, और पीड़ित पूर्व कार्यकर्ताओं द्वारा बड़े पैमाने पर ई-मेलिंग के लिए, जैसे हाल के एक मामले में इंटेल पर

2. In web search, finding a large number of documents with very little relevant information is termed:

(A) poor recall

(B) web crawl

(C) poor precision rate

(D) poor web response

Answer: (A)

Precision is the fraction of retrieved documents that are relevant to the query:

{\text{precision}}={\frac {|\{{\text{relevant documents}}\}\cap \{{\text{retrieved documents}}\}|}{|\{{\text{retrieved documents}}\}|}}

For example, for a text search on a set of documents, precision is the number of correct results divided by the number of all returned results.

Recall is the fraction of the relevant documents that are successfully retrieved.

{\text{recall}}={\frac {|\{{\text{relevant documents}}\}\cap \{{\text{retrieved documents}}\}|}{|\{{\text{relevant documents}}\}|}}

For example, for a text search on a set of documents, recall is the number of correct results divided by the number of results that should have been returned.

3. The concept of connect intelligence is derived from:

(A) virtual reality

(B) fuzzy logic

(C) Bluetooth technology

(D) value added networks

Answer: (D)
connect intelligence: CI involves the coming together and sharing of knowledge amongst a group and secondly, it involves action or goal oriented activity yielding new knowledge as a key contribution to organizations.

एक साथ आने और एक समूह के बीच ज्ञान को साझा करना शामिल है और दूसरा, इसमें संगठनों में महत्वपूर्ण योगदान के रूप में नए ज्ञान देने वाली क्रिया या लक्ष्य उन्मुख गतिविधि शामिल है।

4. Use of an ordinary telephone as an Internet appliance is called:

(A) voice net

(B) voice telephone

(C) voice line

(D) voice portal

Answer: (C)

5. Video transmission over the Internet that looks like delayed live casting is called:

(A) virtual video

(B) direct broadcast

(C) video shift

(D) real-time video

Answer: (D)
Real-time video The transmission of live video. It implies that there is no delay at the receiving side, or at most, imperceptible delays. Although a video broadcast that is streamed live may be considered real-time video, there is an intentional, buffered delay at the receiving end. True real-time video capability is required in a two-way video calling or videoconferencing session

वास्तविक समय वीडियो लाइव वीडियो का संचरण इसका अर्थ है कि प्राप्त पक्ष में कोई देरी नहीं है, या अधिकतर, अस्पष्ट विलंब यद्यपि लाइव स्ट्रीम किया गया एक वीडियो प्रसारण वास्तविक समय वीडियो माना जा सकता है, हालांकि प्राप्त अंत में एक जानबूझकर, बफर देरी है। दो-तरफ़ा वीडियो कॉलिंग या वीडियोकॉन्फरेंसिंग सत्र में वास्तविक वास्तविक समय की वीडियो क्षमता की आवश्यकता है

2006 dec

6 LAN stands for:

(A) Local And National

(B) Local Area Network

(C) Large Area Network

(D) Live Area Network

Answer: (B)

7. Which of the following statement is correct?

(A) Modem is a software

(B) Modem helps in stabilizing the voltage

(C) Modem is the operating system

(D) Modem converts the analog signal into digital signal and vice-versa

Answer: (D)

मॉडेम एनालॉग संकेत को डिजिटल सिग्नल में परिवर्तित करता है और इसके विपरीत

8. Which of the following is the appropriate definition of a computer?

(A) Computer is a machine that can process information.

(B) Computer is an electronic device that can store, retrieve and process both qualitative and quantitative data quickly and accurately.

(C) Computer is an electronic device that can store, retrieve and quickly process only quantitative data.

(D) Computer is a machine that can store, retrieve and process quickly and accurately only qualitative information

Answer: (B)

कंप्यूटर एक इलेक्ट्रॉनिक उपकरण है जो गुणात्मक और मात्रात्मक दोनों डेटा को तुरंत, सटीक रूप से संग्रहित, पुनर्प्राप्त और संसाधित कर सकता है।

9. Information and Communication Technology includes:

(A) On line learning

(B) Learning through the use of EDUSAT

(C) Web Based Learning

(D) All the above

Answer: (D)

10. Which of the following is the appropriate format of URL of e-mail?

(A) www_mail.com

(B) www@mail.com

(C) WWW@mail.com

(D) www.mail.com

Answer: (B)

2007 june

11. On the keyboard of computer each character has an "ASCII" value which stands for:

(A) American Stock Code for Information Interchange

(B) American Standard Code for Information Interchange

(C) African Standard Code for Information Interchange

(D) Adaptable Standard Code for Information Change

Answer: (B)

12. Which part of the Central Processing Unit (CPU) performs calculation and makes decisions:

(A) Arithematic Logic Unit

(B) Alternating Logic Unit

(C) Alternate Local Unit

(D) American Logic Unit

Answer: (A)

13. "Dpi" stands for:

(A) Dots per inch

(B) Digits per unit

(C) Dots pixel inch

(D) Diagrams per inch

Answer: (A)

14. The process of laying out a document with text, graphics, headlines and photographs is involved in

(A) Deck Top Publishing

(B) Desk Top Printing

(C) Desk Top Publishing

(D) Deck Top Printing

Answer: (C)

15. Transfer of data from one application to another line is known as:

(A) Dynamic Disk Exchange

(B) Dodgy Data Exchange

(C) Dogmatic Data Exchange

(D) Dynamic Data Exchange

Answer: (D)

Dec 2007

16. CD ROM stands for:

(A) Computer Disk Read Only Memory

(B) Compact Disk Read Over Memory

(C) Compact Disk Read Only Memory

(D) Computer Disk Read Over Memory

Answer: (C)

17. The 'brain' of a computer which keeps peripherals under its control is called:

(A) Common Power Unit

(B) Common Processing Unit

(C) Central Power Unit

(D) Central Processing Unit

Answer: (D)

18. Data can be saved on backing storage medium known as :

(A) Compact Disk Recordable

(B) Computer Disk Rewritable

(C) Compact Disk Rewritable

(D) Computer Data Rewritable

Answer: (C)

19. RAM means:

(A) Random Access Memory

(B) Rigid Access Memory

(C) Rapid Access Memory

(D) Revolving Access Memory

Answer: (A)

20. www represents:

(A) who what and where

(B) weird wide web

(C) word wide web

(D) world wide web

Answer: (D)

2008 June

21. WYSIWYG - describes the display of a document on screen as it will actually print:

(A) What you state is what you get

(B) What you see is what you get

(C) What you save is what you get

(D) What you suggest is what you get

Answer: (B)

22. Which of the following is not a Computer language?

(A) PASCAL

(B) UNIX

(C) FORTRAN

(D COBOL

Answer: (B)

23. A key-board has at least:

(A) 91 keys

(B) 101 keys

(C) 111 keys

(D) 121 keys

Answer: (B)

IBM/PC keyboards

Original IBM PC Keyboard (1981) - 83 keys
Updated IBM PC Keyboard (1984) - 84 keys
AT Keyboard - 84 keys
AT Enhanced Keyboard - 101 keys
US Traditional Keyboard - 101 keys
Enhanced European Keyboard - 102 keys
Windows Keyboard - 104 keys
Windows-based Laptop Keyboard - 86 keys

Apple keyboards

Apple Keyboard with Numeric Keypad - 109 keys
Apple Wireless Keyboard - 78 keys
Apple Mac-book Air laptop - 78 keys

24. An E-mail address is composed of:

(A) two parts

(B) three parts

(C) four parts

(D) five parts

Answer: (A) The general format of an email address is local-part@domain, and a specific example is jsmith@example.com. An address consists of two parts.

25. Corel Draw is a popular:

(A) Illustration programme

(B) Programming language

(C) Text programme

(D) None of the above

Answer: (A)

2008 dec

26. The accounting software 'Tally' was developed by:

(A) HCL

(B) TCS

(C) Infosys

(D) Wipro

Answer: (B)

27. Errors in computer programmes are called:

(A) Follies

(B) Mistakes

(C) Bugs

(D) Spam

Answer: (C)

28. HTML is basically used to design:

(A) Web-page

(B) Web-site

(C) Graphics

(D) Tables and Frames

Answer: (A)
HTML can embed programs written in a scripting language such as JavaScript which affect the behavior and content of web pages.

29. 'Micro Processing'is made for:

(A) Computer

(B) Digital System

(C) Calculator

(D) Electronic Goods

Answer: (A)
A microprocessor is an electronic component that is used by a computer to do its work. It is a central processing unit on a single integrated circuit chip containing millions of very small components including transistors, resistors, and diodes that work together. Microprocessors help to do everything from writing to searching the Web. Everything a computer does is described by lots of precise instructions, and microprocessors carry out these instructions at incredible speed—many millions of times a second

एक माइक्रोप्रोसेसर एक इलेक्ट्रॉनिक घटक है जिसका उपयोग कंप्यूटर द्वारा इसके कार्य करने के लिए किया जाता है यह एक एकीकृत सर्किट चिप पर एक केंद्रीय प्रोसेसिंग यूनिट है जिसमें ट्रांजिस्टर, प्रतिरोधों और डायोड सहित कई छोटे छोटे घटकों को शामिल किया गया है जो एक साथ काम करते हैं। माइक्रोप्रोसेसरों वेब की खोज के लिए लिखित रूप से सब कुछ करने में मदद करते हैं। कंप्यूटर को सब कुछ सटीक निर्देशों से वर्णित किया जाता है, और माइक्रोप्रोसेसरों इन निर्देशों को अविश्वसनीय गति से लेते हैं-कई लाखों बार एक सेकंड

30. Information, a combination of graphics, text, sound, video and animation is called:

(A) Multiprogramme

(B) Multifacet

(C) Multimedia

(D) Multiprocess

Answer: (C)

2009 June

31. What do you need to put your web pages on the www?

(A) a connection to internet

(B) a web browser

(C) a web server

(D) all of the above

Answer: (D)

32. Which was the first company to launch mobile phone services in India?

(A) Essar

(B) BPL

(C) Hutchison

(D) Airtel

Answer: (B)

33. Chandrayan I was launched on 22nd October, 2008 in India from:

(A) Bangalore

(B) Sri Harikota

(C) Chennai

(D) Ahmedabad

Answer: (B)

Chandrayaan-1, India's first mission to Moon, waslaunched successfully on October 22, 2008 from SDSC SHAR, Sriharikota. The spacecraft was orbiting around the Moon at a height of 100 km from the lunar surface for chemical, mineralogical and photo-geologic mapping of the Moon.

34. What is blog?

(A) Online music

(B) Intranet

(C) A personal or corporate website in the form of an online journal

(D) A personal or corporate Google search

Answer: (C)

39. Which is not online Indian Matrimonial website?

(A) www.jeevansathi.com

(B) www.bharatmatrimony.com

(C) www.shaadi.com

(D) www.u.k.singlemuslim.com

Answer: (D)

2009 DEC

40. Which of the following is not related to information security on the Internet?

(A) Data Encryption

(B) Water marking

(C) Data Hiding

(D) Information Retrieval

Answer: (D)

41. Which is the largest unit of storage among the following?

(A) Terabyte

(B) Megabyte

(C) Kilobyte

(D) Gigabyte

Answer: (A)

42. bit stands for

(A) binary information term

(B) binary digit

(C) binary tree

(D) Bivariate Theory

Answer: (B)

A bit (short for binary digit) is the smallest unit of data in a computer. A bit has a single binary value, either 0 or 1. Although computers usually provide instructions that can test and manipulate bits, they generally are designed to store data and execute instructions in bit multiples called bytes.

43. Which one of the following is not a linear data structure?

(A) Array

(B) Binary Tree

(C) Queue

(D) Stack

Answer: (B)

44. Which one of the following is not a network device?

(A) Router

(B) Switch

(C) Hub

(D) CPU

Answer: (D)

45. A compiler is used to convert the following to object code which can be executed

एक कंपाइलर का उपयोग ऑब्जेक्ट कोड से किया जाता है जिसे निष्पादित किया जा सकता है

(A) High-level language

(B) Low-level language

(C) Assembly language

(D) Natural language

Answer: (A)
A compiler is a software program that transforms high-level source code that is written by a developer in a high-level programming language into a low level object code (binary code) in machine language, which can be understood by the processor. The process of converting high-level programming into machine language is known as compilation.

2010 June

46. Which number system is usually followed in a typical 32-bit computer?

(A) 2

(B) 8

(C) 10

(D) 16

Answer: (B)

47. Which one of the following is an example of Operating System?

(A) Microsoft Word

(B) Microsoft Excel

(C) Microsoft Access

(D) Microsoft Windows

Answer: (D)

48. Which one of the following represents the binary equivalent of the decimal number 23?

(A) 01011

(B) 10111

(C) 10011

(D) None of the above

Answer: (B)

49. Which one of the following is different from other members?

(A) Google

(B) Windows

(C) Linux

(D) Mac

Answer: (A)

50. Where does a computer add and compare its data?

(A) CPU

(B) Memory

(C) Hard disk

(D) Floppy disk

Answer: (A)

51. Computers on an internet are identified by

(A) e-mail address

(B) street address

(C) IP address

(D) None of the above

Answer: (C)

2010 dec

52. Which one of the following is not an Internet Service Provider (ISP)?

(A) MTNL

(B) BSNL

(C) ERNET India

(D) Infotech India Ltd.

Answer: (D)

53. The hexadecimal number system consists of the symbols

(A) 0 – 7

(B) 0 – 9 , A – F

(C) 0 – 7, A – F

(D) None of these

Answer: (B)

54. The binary equivalent of (–15)₁₀ is (2’s complement system is used)

(A) 11110001

(B) 11110000

(C) 10001111

(D) None of these

Answer: (A)

55. 1 GB is equal to

(A) 2³⁰ bits

(B) 2³⁰ bytes

(C) 2²⁰ bits

(D) 2²⁰ bytes

Answer: (B)

56. The set of computer programs that manage the hardware/software of a computer is called

(A) Compiler system

(B) Operation system

(C) Operating system

(D) None of these

Answer: (C)

57. S/MIME in Internet technology stands for

(A) Secure Multipurpose Internet Mail Extension

(B) Secure Multimedia Internet Mail Extension

(C) Simple Multipurpose Internet Mail Extension

(D) Simple Multimedia Internet Mail Extension

Answer: (A)

2011 june

58. The octal number system consists of the following symbols :

(A) 0 – 7

(B) 0 – 9

(C) 0 – 9, A – F

(D) None of the above

Answer: (A)

59. The binary equivalent of (–19)₁₀ in signed magnitude system is

(A) 11101100

(B) 11101101

(C) 10010011

(D) None of these

Answer: (B) 11101101

60. DNS in internet technology stands for

(A) Dynamic Name System

(B) Domain Name System

(C) Distributed Name System

(D) None of these

Answer: (B)

61. HTML stands for

(A) Hyper Text Markup Language

(B) Hyper Text Manipulation Language

(C) Hyper Text Managing Links

(D) Hyper Text Manipulating Links

Answer: (A)

62. Which of the following is type of LAN ?

(A) Ethernet

(B) Token Ring

(C) FDDI

(D) All of the above

Answer: (D)

63. Which of the following statements is true ?

(A) Smart cards do not require an operating system.

(B) Smart cards and PCs use some operating system.

(C) COS is smart card operating system.

(D) The communication between reader and card is in full duplex mode.

Answer: (B)

2011 dec

64. Which of the following operating system is used on mobile phones?

(A) Windows Vista

(B) Android

(C) Windows XP

(D) All of the above

Answer: (B)

65. If (y)_x represents a number y in base x, then which of the following numbers is smallest of all ?

(A) (1111)₂

(B) (1111)₈

(C) (1111)₁₀

(D) (1111)₁₆

Answer: (A)

66. High level programming language can be converted to machine language using which of the following?

(A) Oracle

(B) Compiler

(C) Mat lab

(D) Assembler

Answer: (B)

67. HTML is used to create

(A) machine language program

(B) high level program

(C) web page

(D) web server

Answer: (C)

68. The term DNS stands for

(A) Domain Name System

(B) Defense Nuclear System

(C) Downloadable New Software

(D) Dependent Name Server

Answer: (A)

69. IPv4 and IPv6 are addresses used to identify computers on the internet.

Find the correct statement out of the following:

(A) Number of bits required for IPv4 address is more than number of bits required for IPv6 address.

(B) Number of bits required for IPv4 address is same as number of bits required for IPv6 address.

(C) Number of bits required for IPv4 address is less than number of bits required for IPv6 address.

(D) Number of bits required for IPv4 address is 64.

Answer: (C)

IPv4 Vs IPv6

A new technology will take its place, though. IPv4's successor is IPv6, a system that will not only offer far more numerical addresses, but will simplify address assignments and additional network security features.

The transition from IPv4 to IPv6 is likely to be rough, though. Most people are unfamiliar with IPv4 and IPv6, much less the potential impact the switch to IPv6 may have on their lives.

That's why we've compiled this short guide to IPv4 and the eventual transition to IPv6. We explain the two versions of IP and why they matter. We also go into detail on what you can expect in the next few years as billions of websites, businesses and individuals make the switch to the new era of the Internet.

IPv4 & IPv6 Q&A

Q: What is IPv4?
A: IPv4 stands for Internet Protocol version 4. It is the underlying technology that makes it possible for us to connect our devices to the web. Whenever a device access the Internet (whether it's a PC, Mac, smartphone or other device), it is assigned a unique, numerical IP address such as 99.48.227.227. To send data from one computer to another through the web, a data packet must be transferred across the network containing the IP addresses of both devices.

Without IP addresses, computers would not be able to communicate and send data to each other. It's essential to the infrastructure of the web.

Q: What is IPv6?
A: IPv6 is the sixth revision to the Internet Protocol and the successor to IPv4. It functions similarly to IPv4 in that it provides the unique, numerical IP addresses necessary for Internet-enabled devices to communicate. However, it does sport one major difference: it utilizes 128-bit addresses. I'll explain why this is important in a moment.

Q: Why are we running out of IPv4 addresses?
A: IPv4 uses 32 bits for its Internet addresses. That means it can support 2^32 IP addresses in total — around 4.29 billion. That may seem like a lot, but all 4.29 billion IP addresses have now been assigned to various institutions, leading to the crisis we face today.

Let's be clear, though: we haven't run out of addresses quite yet. Many of them are unused and in the hands of institutions like MIT and companies like Ford and IBM. More IPv4 addresses are available to be assigned and more will be traded or sold (since IPv4 addresses are now a scarce resource), but they will become a scarcer commodity over the next two years until it creates problem for the web.

Q: How does IPv6 solve this problem?
A: As previously stated, IPv6 utilizes 128-bit Internet addresses. Therefore, it can support 2^128 Internet addresses — 340,282,366,920,938,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 of them to be exact. That's a lot of addresses, so many that it requires a hexadecimal system to display the addresses. In other words, there are more than enough IPv6 addresses to keep the Internet operational for a very, very long time.

Q: So why don't we just switch?
A: The depletion of IPv4 addresses was predicted years ago, so the switch has been in progress for the last decade. However, progress has been slow — only a small fraction of the web has switched over to the new protocol. In addition, IPv4 and IPv6 essentially run as parallel networks — exchanging data between these protocols requires special gateways.

To make the switch, software and routers will have to be changed to support the more advanced network. This will take time and money. The first real test of the IPv6 network will come on June 8, 2011, World IPv6 Day. Google, Facebook and other prominent web companies will test drive the IPv6 network to see what it can handle and what still needs to be done to get the world switched over to the new network.

2012 June

70. TCP/IP is necessary if one is to connect to the

(A) Phone lines

(B) LAN

(C) Internet

(D) a Server

Answer: (C)

71. Each character on the keyboard of computer has an ASCII value which stands for

(A) American Stock Code for Information Interchange

(B) American Standard Code for Information Interchange

(C) African Standard Code for Information Interchange

(D) Adaptable Standard Code for Information Change

Answer: (B)

72. Which of the following is not a programming language ?

(A) Pascal

(B) Microsoft Office

(C) Java

(D) C++

Answer: (B)

73. Minimum number of bits required to store any 3 digit decimal number is equal to

(A) 3

(B) 5

(C) 8

(D) 10

Answer: (D)

Notes:

Assuming that the question is asking what's the minimum bits required for you to store

3 digits number

My approach to this question would be:

what's the maximum number of 3 digits number we need to store? Ans: 999
what's the minimum amount of bits required for me to store this number?

This problem can be solved this way by dividing 999 by 2 recursively. However, it's simpler to use the power of maths to help us. Essentially, we're solving n for the equation below:

2^n = 999
nlog2 = log999
n ~ 10

You'll need 10 bits to store 3 digit number.

Use similar approach to solve the other subquestions!

The formula for the number of binary bits required for a positive integer n is:

log_e(n) / log_e(2)

and round up.

On your calculator, log_e may just be labelled log or ln (natural logarithm).

The largest number that can be represented by an n digit number in base b is bⁿ - 1. Hence, the largest number that can be represented in N binary digits is 2^N - 1. We need the smallest integer N such that:

2^N - 1 ≥ bⁿ - 1
⇒ 2^N ≥ bⁿ

Taking the base 2 logarithm of both sides of the last expression gives:

log₂ 2^N ≥ log₂ bⁿ
⇒ N ≥ log₂ bⁿ
⇒ N ≥ log bⁿ / log 2

Since we want the smallest integer N that satisfies the last relation, to find N, find log bⁿ / log2 and take the ceiling.

For n = 3:

N = ⌈log 10³ / log 2⌉ = 10

For n = 4:

N = ⌈log 10⁴ / log 2⌉ = 14

For n = 6:

N = ⌈log 10⁶ / log 2⌉ = 20

And in general, for n decimal digits:

N = ⌈log 10ⁿ / log 2⌉

74. Internet explorer is a type of

(A) Operating System

(B) Compiler

(C) Browser

(D) IP address

Answer: (C)

75. POP3 and IMAP are e-mail accounts in which

(A) One automatically gets one’s mail everyday

(B) One has to be connected to the server to read or write one’s mail

(C) One only has to be connected to the server to send and receive email

(D) One does not need any telephone lines

Answer: (C)

2012 dec

76. ALU stands for

(A) American Logic Unit

(B) Alternate Local Unit

(C) Alternating Logic Unit

(D) Arithmetic Logic Unit

Answer: (D)

77. A Personal Computer uses a number of chips mounted on a circuit board called

(A) Microprocessor

(B) System Board

(C) Daughter Board

(D) Mother Board

Answer: (D)

78. Computer Virus is a

(A) Hardware

(B) Bacteria

(C) Software

(D) None of these

Answer: (C)

79. Which one of the following is correct?

(A) (17)₁₀= (17)₁₆

(B) (17)₁₀ = (17)₈

(C) (17)₁₀ = (10111)₂

(D) (17)₁₀ = (10001)₂

Answer: (D)

80. The file extension of MS-Word document in Office 2007 is _______.

(A) .pdf

(B) .doc

(C) .docx

(D) .txt

Answer: (C)

81. _______ is a protocol used by e-mail clients to download e-mails to your computer.

(A) TCP

(B) FTP

(C) SMTP

(D) POP

Answer: (D)

TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) is a standard that defines how to establish and maintain a network conversation via which application programs can exchange data. TCP works with the Internet Protocol (IP), which defines how computers send packets of data to each other. Together, TCP and IP are the basic rules defining the Internet. TCP is defined by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) in the Request for Comment (RFC) standards document number 793.

TCP is a connection-oriented protocol, which means a connection is established and maintained until the application programs at each end have finished exchanging messages. It determines how to break application data into packets that networks can deliver, sends packets to and accepts packets from the network layer, manages flow control, and—because it is meant to provide error-free data transmission—handles retransmission of dropped or garbled packets as well as acknowledgement of all packets that arrive. In the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) communication model, TCP covers parts of Layer 4, the Transport Layer, and parts of Layer 5, the Session Layer.

For example, when a Web server sends an HTML file to a client, it uses the HTTP protocol to do so. The HTTP program layer asks the TCP layer to set up the connection and send the file. The TCP stack divides the file into packets, numbers them and then forwards them individually to the IP layer for delivery. Although each packet in the transmission will have the same source and destination IP addresses, packets may be sent along multiple routes. The TCP program layer in the client computer waits until all of the packets have arrived, then acknowledges those it receives and asks for the retransmission on any it does not (based on missing packet numbers), then assembles them into a file and delivers the file to the receiving application.

Definition - What does Post Office Protocol (POP) mean?

Post Office Protocol (POP) is a type of computer networking and Internet standard protocol that extracts and retrieves email from a remote mail server for access by the host machine.

POP is an application layer protocol in the OSI model that provides end users the ability to fetch and receive email.

टीसीपी (ट्रांसमिशन कंट्रोल प्रोटोकॉल) एक मानक है जो परिभाषित करता है कि कैसे एक नेटवर्क वार्तालाप को स्थापित और बनाए रखना है जिसके जरिए एप्लिकेशन प्रोग्राम डेटा का आदान-प्रदान कर सकते हैं। टीसीपी इंटरनेट प्रोटोकॉल (आईपी) के साथ काम करता है, जो परिभाषित करता है कि कैसे कंप्यूटर एक दूसरे को डेटा के पैकेट भेजते हैं। साथ में, टीसीपी और आईपी इंटरनेट को परिभाषित करने वाले बुनियादी नियम हैं। टीसीपी को इंटरनेट इंजीनियरिंग टास्क फोर्स (आईईटीएफ) द्वारा टिप्पणी के लिए अनुरोध (आरएफसी) मानक दस्तावेज संख्या 793 द्वारा परिभाषित किया गया है। टीसीपी एक कनेक्शन-उन्मुख प्रोटोकॉल है, जिसका अर्थ है कि एक कनेक्शन स्थापित और बनाए रखा जाता है जब तक कि प्रत्येक छोर पर एप्लिकेशन प्रोग्राम संदेशों का आदान-प्रदान नहीं कर लेते। यह निर्धारित करता है कि कैसे नेटवर्क डेटा को पैकेट भेजता है, पैकेट भेजता है और नेटवर्क परत से पैकेट भेजता है, प्रवाह नियंत्रण का प्रबंधन करता है, और -यदि यह त्रुटि-मुक्त डाटा ट्रांसमिशन प्रदान करने के लिए है, जो गिराए गए या विकृत पैकेट के पुन: साथ ही आने वाले सभी पैकेटों की स्वीकृति ओपन सिस्टम इंटरकनेक्शन (ओएसआई) संचार मॉडल में, टीसीपी परत 4 के हिस्सों, ट्रांसपोर्ट लेयर, और परत 5 के भाग, सत्र परत को कवर करती है। उदाहरण के लिए, जब कोई वेब सर्वर क्लाइंट में एक HTML फ़ाइल भेजता है, तो ऐसा करने के लिए HTTP प्रोटोकॉल का उपयोग करता है। HTTP कार्यक्रम परत कनेक्शन सेट करने के लिए TCP परत पूछता है और फ़ाइल भेजता है। टीसीपी स्टैक फाइल को पैकेट में विभाजित करता है, उन्हें नंबर देता है और फिर उन्हें डिलीवरी के लिए आईपी परत पर व्यक्तिगत रूप से आगे बढ़ाता है। हालांकि संचरण में प्रत्येक पैकेट का एक ही स्रोत और गंतव्य आईपी पते होगा, पैकेट एकाधिक मार्गों के साथ भेजा जा सकता है। क्लाइंट कंप्यूटर में टीसीपी प्रोग्राम परत तब तक इंतजार करता है जब तक कि सभी पैकेट आये, तब उनको स्वीकार करता है जो इसे प्राप्त करता है और जो किसी भी यह (पैकेट नंबरों के आधार पर नहीं है) पर पुनर्भुगतान के लिए पूछता है, फिर उन्हें एक फाइल में जोड़ता है और फाइल प्राप्त आवेदन के लिए परिभाषा - डाकघर प्रोटोकॉल (पीओपी) क्या मतलब है? पोस्ट ऑफिस प्रोटोकॉल (पीओपी) एक प्रकार का कंप्यूटर नेटवर्किंग और इंटरनेट मानक प्रोटोकॉल है जो मेजबान मशीन द्वारा एक्सेस के लिए एक दूरस्थ मेल सर्वर से ईमेल निकालता है और पुनः प्राप्त करता है। पॉप एक ओएसआई मॉडल में एक अनुप्रयोग परत प्रोटोकॉल है जो अंत उपयोगकर्ताओं को ईमेल लाने और प्राप्त करने की क्षमता प्रदान करता है।

2013 june

82. ‘www’ stands for

(A) work with web

(B) word wide web

(C) world wide web

(D) worth while web

Answer: (C)

83. A hard disk is divided into tracks which is further subdivided into

(A) Clusters

(B) Sectors

(C) Vectors

(D) Heads

Answer: (B)

84. A computer program that translates a program statement by statement into machine languages is called a/an

(A) Compiler

(B) Simulator

(C) Translator

(D) Interpreter

Answer: (D)

Compiler, Assembler, Interpreter Notes:

Compiler scans the entire program once and then converts it into machine language which can then be executed by computer's processor. In short compiler translates the entire program in one go and then executes it. Interpreter on the other hand first converts high level language into an intermediate code and then executes it line by line. This intermediate code is executed by another program.
The execution of program is faster in compiler than interpreter as in interpreter code is executed line by line.
Compiler generates error report after translation of entire code whereas in case of interpreter once an error is encountered it is notified and no further code is scanned.
Assembler is used for converting the code of low level language (assembly language) into machine level language.If you have worked on microprocessors like 8085 and 8086 the module which converts assembly language into machine language is nothing but Assembler.

We generally write a computer program using a high-level language. A high-level language is one which is understandable by us humans. It contains words and phrases from the English (or other) language. But a computer does not understand high-level language. It only understands program written in 0's and 1's in binary, called the machine code. A program written in high-level language is called a source code. We need to convert the source code into machine code and this is accomplished by compilers and interpreters. Hence, a compiler or an interpreter is a program that converts program written in high-level language into machine code understood by the computer.

कंपाइलर पूरे कार्यक्रम को एक बार स्कैन करता है और फिर इसे मशीन भाषा में परिवर्तित करता है जिसे कंप्यूटर के प्रोसेसर द्वारा तब निष्पादित किया जा सकता है। संक्षेप में कंपाइलर एक प्रोग्राम में संपूर्ण प्रोग्राम का अनुवाद करता है और फिर उसे निष्पादित करता है। दूसरी तरफ इंटरप्रेट्रेटर पहले उच्च स्तरीय भाषा को एक मध्यवर्ती कोड में कनवर्ट करता है और फिर लाइन द्वारा इसे निष्पादित करता है। यह मध्यवर्ती कोड दूसरे प्रोग्राम द्वारा निष्पादित होता है।
दुभाषिया से प्रोग्रामर का निष्पादन तेजी से कंपलर में होता है क्योंकि इंटरप्रीटर कोड लाइन द्वारा पंक्ति निष्पादित होता है।
कंपाइलर पूरे कोड के अनुवाद के बाद त्रुटि रिपोर्ट उत्पन्न करता है, जबकि एक बार एक त्रुटि का सामना करने के बाद दुभाषिया के मामले में सूचित किया जाता है और आगे कोई कोड स्कैन नहीं किया जाता है।
असेंबलर का इस्तेमाल निम्न स्तर की भाषा (विधानसभा भाषा) को मशीन स्तर की भाषा में परिवर्तित करने के लिए किया जाता है। यदि आपने माइक्रोप्रोसेसरों पर काम किया है जैसे 8085 और 8086 मॉड्यूल जो असेंबली भाषा को मशीन की भाषा में कनवर्ट करता है लेकिन असेंबलर नहीं है।
हम आम तौर पर एक उच्च स्तरीय भाषा का उपयोग करके कंप्यूटर प्रोग्राम लिखते हैं। एक उच्च स्तरीय भाषा वह है जो हमारे द्वारा मनुष्यों को समझा जा सकती है। इसमें अंग्रेजी (या अन्य) भाषा से शब्द और वाक्यांश शामिल हैं लेकिन एक कंप्यूटर उच्च स्तरीय भाषा नहीं समझता है यह केवल 0 और 1 के बाइनरी में लिखे गए कार्यक्रम को मशीन कोड कहा जाता है। उच्च स्तरीय भाषा में लिखे गए एक प्रोग्राम को एक स्रोत कोड कहा जाता है। हमें स्रोत कोड को मशीन कोड में बदलने की आवश्यकता है और यह कंपाइलर और दुभाषियों द्वारा पूरा किया जाता है। इसलिए, एक कंपाइलर या एक दुभाषिया एक प्रोग्राम है जो कंप्यूटर द्वारा समझा मशीन कोड में उच्च-स्तरीय भाषा में लिखे गए प्रोग्राम को परिवर्तित करता है।

The difference between an interpreter and a compiler is given below:

Interpreter	Compiler
Translates program one statement at a time.	Scans the entire program and translates it as a whole into machine code.
It takes less amount of time to analyze the source code but the overall execution time is slower.	It takes large amount of time to analyze the source code but the overall execution time is comparatively faster.
No intermediate object code is generated, hence are memory efficient.	Generates intermediate object code which further requires linking, hence requires more memory.
Continues translating the program until the first error is met, in which case it stops. Hence debugging is easy.	It generates the error message only after scanning the whole program. Hence debugging is comparatively hard.
Programming language like Python, Ruby use interpreters.	Programming language like C, C++ use compilers.

85. A Gigabyte is equal to

(A) 1024 Megabytes

(B) 1024 Kilobytes

(C) 1024 Terabytes

(D) 1024 Bytes

Answer: (A)

86. A Compiler is a software which converts

(A) characters to bits

(B) high level language to machine language

(C) machine language to high level language

(D) words to bits

Answer: (B)

87. Virtual memory is

(A) an extremely large main memory.

(B) an extremely large secondary memory.

(C) an illusion of extremely large main memory.

(D) a type of memory used in super computers.

Answer: (C)

2013 sep

88. The Internet ethical protocol is called

(A) net protocol

(B) netiquette

(C) net ethics

(D) net morality

Answer: (B)

Netiquette is etiquette on the Internet. Since the Internet changes rapidly, its netiquette does too, but it's still usually based on the Golden Rule. The need for a sense of netiquette arises mostly when sending or distributing e-mail, posting on Usenet groups, or chatting. To some extent, the practice of netiquette depends on understanding how e-mail, the Usenet, chatting, or other aspects of the Internet actually work or are practiced. So a little preliminary observation can help. Poor netiquette because you're new is one thing, but such practices as spam and flaming are another matter.

नेटवेट इंटरनेट पर शिष्टाचार है चूंकि इंटरनेट में तेजी से परिवर्तन होता है, इसके नेटिकेट भी हैं, लेकिन यह अभी भी सामान्यतः गोल्डन रूल पर आधारित है। ई-मेल भेजने या वितरण, यूज़नेट समूहों पर पोस्टिंग, या चैट करने पर ज्यादातर नेटिकेट की भावना की आवश्यकता होती है। कुछ हद तक, नेटुकेट का अभ्यास यह समझने पर निर्भर करता है कि ई-मेल, यूज़नेट, चैट, या इंटरनेट के अन्य पहलुओं को वास्तव में कैसे काम या अभ्यास किया जाता है। तो थोड़ा प्रारंभिक अवलोकन मदद कर सकता है गरीब नेटिकेट क्योंकि आप नए हैं एक बात है, लेकिन स्पैम और ज्वलंत के रूप में ऐसी प्रथाएं एक और बात है।

89. Commercial messages on the net are identified as

(A) Net ads

(B) Internet commercials

(C) Webmercials

(D) Viral advertisements

Answer: (C) Webmercials are Online Video Advertising for businesses big and small.

90. Manuel Castelle was the first to use the term

(A) Internet society

(B) Electronic society

(C) Network society

(D) Telematic society

Answer: (C)

91. GIF stands for

(A) Global Information Format

(B) Graphics Information Format

(C) Graphics Interchange File

(D) Graphics Interchange Format

Answer: (D)

92. Which one of the following is not an Operating System ?

(A) IBM AIX

(B) Linux

(C) Sun Solaris

(D) Firefox

Answer: (D)

2013 dec

93. Which of the following is a social network?

(A) amazon.com

(B) eBay

(C) gmail.com

(D) Twitter

Answer: (D)

Here's how Wikipedia defines social networking: "A social network service focuses on building online communities of people who share interests and/or activities, or who are interested in exploring the interests and activities of others. Most social network services are Web based and provide a variety of ways for users to interact, such as e-mail and instant messaging services."

There are many social networking sites on the Web. FlickR is a photo-sharing site; Yammer asks people to explain "What are you working on?" and only reveals the answers to those in your network with a similar corporate e-mail address; and LinkedIn is a social networking site where professionals can connect. Some of the most popular social networking sites that real estate pros are using include Facebook, MySpace, LinkedIn, YouTube, and Twitter.

Facebook is social. Twitter is social. Discussion and message boards are social. But more people would say that email is not.

Gartner makes two important distinctions as to why email isn’t social media:

E-mail is a distribution mechanism and social media is a collective mechanism
Mass communication is different from mass collaboration

Email isn’t social media. In fact it’s a communications tool that users shouldn’t employ for media consumption at all. However by some accounts email marketing is a $10 billion industry – not that size makes right.

During the Internet’s Democratization Era, my former Forrester colleague Charlene Li guided companies to a simple and powerful distinction when thinking about tools: email is to-do, RSS is to know. Users approach their inboxes with an obligation mindset, which is fine. They just need to keep in mind that oftentimes the problems they create are their own.

Making email work requires that internally, companies train their users on how to make use of an expanded communications toolkit. Externally, email integrates with social media, orchestrated for reach and frequency.

2014 june

94. The acronym FTP stands for

(A) File Transfer Protocol

(B) Fast Transfer Protocol

(C) File Tracking Protocol

(D) File Transfer Procedure

Answer: (A)

95. Which one of the following is not a/an image/graphic file format?

(A) PNG

(B) GIF

(C) BMP

(D) GUI

Answer: (D)

GUI implies graphical user interface which is used by windows to make it user friendly while dos uses command line interface. Png, bmp and gif are all image formats.

96. The first Web Browser is

(A) Internet Explorer

(B) Netscape

(C) World Wide Web

(D) Firefox

Answer: (C)

The first web browser was invented in 1990 by Sir Tim Berners-Lee. Berners-Lee is the director of the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), which oversees the Web's continued development, and is also the founder of the World Wide Web Foundation. Hisbrowser was called WorldWideWeb and later renamed Nexus.

100. When a computer is booting, BIOS is loaded to the memory by

(A) RAM

(B) ROM

(C) CD-ROM

(D) TCP

Answer: (B)

At initial power on, the BIOS is executed directly from ROM. The ROM chip is mapped to a fixed location in the processor's memory space (this is typically a feature of the chipset). When the x86 processor comes out of reset, it immediately begins executing from 0xFFFFFFF0.

However, executing directly from ROM is quite slow, so usually one of the first things the BIOS does is to copy and decompress the BIOS code into RAM, and it executes from there. Of course, the memory controller must be initialized first! The BIOS takes care of that beforehand.

The memory map layout will vary from system to system. At power-on, the BIOS will query the attached PCI/PCIe devices, determine what resources are needed, and place them in the memory map at the optimal location. If everything is working properly, memory-mapped devices should not overlap with RAM. (Note that on a 64-bit system with >3GB of RAM, things get complicated because you need a "hole" in the middle of RAM for your 32-bit PCI/PCIe devices. Some early x64 BIOSes and chipsets had issues with this.)

प्रारंभिक शक्ति पर, बीओओएस सीधे रोम से निष्पादित होता है रोम चिप को प्रोसेसर मेमोरी स्पेस में एक निश्चित स्थान पर मैप किया जाता है (यह आमतौर पर चिपसेट की एक विशेषता है)। जब x86 प्रोसेसर रीसेट से बाहर आता है, तो इसे तुरंत 0xFFFFFFF0 से कार्यान्वित करना शुरू होता है। हालांकि, रॉम से सीधा निष्पादित करना काफी धीमा है, इसलिए आमतौर पर BIOS द्वारा बनाई गई पहली चीजों में से एक यह है कि BIOS कोड की प्रतिलिपि बनाने और डीकम्प्रेशन करना राम में है, और वह वहां से कार्यान्वित करता है बेशक, स्मृति नियंत्रक पहले आरंभी होना चाहिए! BIOS पहले से ही इसका ख्याल रखता है मेमोरी नक्शा लेआउट सिस्टम से सिस्टम में भिन्न हो जाएगा पावर-इन पर, BIOS संलग्न PCI / PCIe डिवाइसों को पूछताछ करेगा, यह निर्धारित करेगा कि संसाधनों की क्या आवश्यकता है, और इन्हें इष्टतम स्थान पर मेमोरी मैप में रखें। अगर सब कुछ ठीक से काम कर रहा है, तो मेमोरी मैप किए गए डिवाइसों को रैम के साथ ओवरलैप नहीं करना चाहिए। (ध्यान दें कि 64-बिट सिस्टम पर> 3 जीबी रैम पर, चीजों को जटिल हो जाता है क्योंकि आपको अपने 32-बिट पीसीआई / पीसीआईई उपकरणों के लिए रैम के बीच में एक "छेद" की आवश्यकता है। कुछ शुरुआती x 64 बायोस और चिपसेट के साथ समस्याएं थीं ।)

101. Which one of the following is not the same as the other three?

(A) MAC address

(B) Hardware address

(C) Physical address

(D) IP address

Answer: (D)

MAC address, hardware address and physical address are all the real address that is assigned to any machine and all of them are unique in themselves. While IP address is the internet protocol address that is assigned to the systems in a network

मैक पते, हार्डवेयर पता और भौतिक पता सभी वास्तविक पते हैं जो किसी भी मशीन को सौंपे जाते हैं और उन सभी को खुद में अद्वितीय हैं। जबकि आईपी एड्रेस इंटरनेट प्रोटोकॉल एड्रेस है जिसे नेटवर्क में सिस्टम को असाइन किया गया है

102. Identify the IP address from the following

(A) 300 .215.317.3

(B) 302.215@417.5

(C) 202.50.20.148

(D) 202-50-20-148

Answer: (C)

"IP" stands for Internet Protocol, so an IP address is an Internet Protocol address. What does that mean? An Internet Protocol is a set of rules that govern Internet activity and facilitate completion of a variety of actions on the World Wide Web. Therefore an Internet Protocol address is part of the systematically laid out interconnected grid that governs online communication by identifying both initiating devices and various Internet destinations, thereby making two-way communication possible.

An IPv4 address consists of four numbers, each of which contains one to three digits, with a single dot (.) separating each number or set of digits. Each of the four numbers can range from 0 to 255. Here's an example of what an IP address might look like: 78.125.0.209. This innocuous-looking group of four numbers is the key that empowers you and me to send and retrieve data over our Internet connections, ensuring that our messages, as well as our requests for data and the data we've requested, will reach their correct Internet destinations. Without this numeric protocol, sending and receiving data over the World Wide Web would be impossible.

An IPv6 address consists of eight groups of four hexadecimal digits. If a group consists of four zeros, the notation can be shortened using a colon to replace the zeros.

Dynamic or Static

IP addresses can be either static or dynamic. Static IP addresses never change. They serve as a permanent Internet address and provide a simple and reliable way for remote computers to contact you. Static IP addresses reveal such information as the continent, country, region, and city in which a computer is located; the ISP (Internet Service Provider) that services that particular computer; and such technical information as the precise latitude and longitude of the country, as well as the locale, of the computer. Many websites provide IP address look-up services to their visitors, free of charge. If you're curious about your own IP address, you can locate these websites by performing a Google search.

Dynamic IP addresses are temporary and are assigned (via DHCP) each time a computer joins a network. They are, in effect, borrowed from a pool of IP addresses that are shared among various computers. Since a limited number of static IP addresses are available, many ISPs reserve a portion of their assigned addresses for sharing among their subscribers in this way. This lowers costs and allows them to service far more subscribers than they otherwise could.

Static IP addresses are generally preferable for such uses as VOIP(Voice over Internet Protocol), online gaming, or any other purpose where users need to make it easy for other computers to locate and connect to them. Easy access can also be facilitated when using a dynamic IP address through the use of a dynamic DNS service, which enables other computers to find you even though you may be using a temporary, one-time IP address. This often entails an extra charge, however, so check with your ISP.

Static IP addresses are considered somewhat less secure than dynamic IP addresses, since they are easier to track for data mining purposes. However, following safe Internet practices can help mitigate this potential problem and keep your computer secure no matter what type of IP address you use.

"आईपी" इंटरनेट प्रोटोकॉल के लिए है, इसलिए एक आईपी पता एक इंटरनेट प्रोटोकॉल पता है। इसका क्या मतलब है? एक इंटरनेट प्रोटोकॉल उन नियमों का एक समूह है, जो इंटरनेट गतिविधि को संचालित करते हैं और वर्ल्ड वाइड वेब पर विभिन्न कार्यों को पूरा करने में सहायता करते हैं। इसलिए एक इंटरनेट प्रोटोकॉल पता व्यवस्थित रूप से बाहर की गई ग्रिड का हिस्सा है जो आरंभिक डिवाइसों और विभिन्न इंटरनेट गंतव्यों दोनों को पहचानकर ऑनलाइन संचार को नियंत्रित करता है, जिससे दो-तरफा संचार संभव हो जाता है

एक IPv4 पते में चार नंबर होते हैं जिनमें से प्रत्येक में एक से तीन अंक होते हैं, एक एकल बिंदु (।) प्रत्येक संख्या या अंकों के सेट को अलग करते हुए। चार संख्याओं में से प्रत्येक 0 से 255 तक हो सकती है। यहां एक उदाहरण है कि एक आईपी पता कैसा दिख सकता है: 78.125.0.209 चार नंबरों का यह अहानिकर-दिखने वाला समूह महत्वपूर्ण है जो आपको और मुझे हमारे इंटरनेट कनेक्शन पर डेटा भेजने और पुनः प्राप्त करने की शक्ति देता है, यह सुनिश्चित करता है कि हमारे संदेश, साथ ही साथ डेटा के लिए हमारे अनुरोध और हमारे द्वारा अनुरोधित डेटा, उनके सही तक पहुंच जाएंगे इंटरनेट गंतव्यों इस संख्यात्मक प्रोटोकॉल के बिना, वर्ल्ड वाइड वेब पर डेटा भेजने और प्राप्त करना असंभव होगा

एक आईपीवी 6 पता चार हेक्साडेसिमल अंकों के आठ समूहों के होते हैं। यदि एक समूह में चार शून्य होते हैं, तो शून्य को बदलने के लिए बृहदान्त्र का उपयोग करके नोटेशन को छोटा किया जा सकता है।

2014 dec

103. CSS stands for

(A) Cascading Style Sheets

(B) Collecting Style Sheets

(C) Comparative Style Sheets

(D) Comprehensive Style Sheets

Answer: (A)

CSS stands for Cascading Style Sheet and is used by web pages to help keep information in the proper display format. CSS files can help define font, size, color, spacing, border and location of HTML information on a web page, and can also be used to create a continuous look throughout multiple pages of a website.

CSS कैस्केडिंग स्टाइल शीट के लिए खड़ा है और उचित प्रदर्शन प्रारूप में जानकारी रखने में मदद के लिए वेब पेज द्वारा उपयोग किया जाता है। सीएसएस फाइल वेब पेज पर फ़ॉन्ट, आकार, रंग, रिक्ति, सीमा और एचटीएमएल जानकारी के स्थान को परिभाषित करने में मदद कर सकती है, और वेबसाइट का एक से अधिक पृष्ठों के दौरान एक सतत नज़रिया बनाने के लिए भी इस्तेमाल किया जा सकता है।

104. MOOC stands for

(A) Media Online Open Course

(B) Massachusetts Open Online Course

(C) Massive Open Online Course

(D) Myrind Open Online Course

Answer: (C)

105. Binary equivalent of decimal number 35 is

(A) 100011

(B) 110001

(C) 110101

(D) 101011

Answer: (A)

106. gif, jpg, bmp, png are used as extensions for files which store

(A) Audio data

(B) Image data

(C) Video data

(D) Text data

Answer: (B)

107. Symbols A-F are used in which one of the following?

(A) Binary number system

(B) Decimal number system

(C) Hexadecimal number system

(D) Octal number system

Answer: (C)

108. Which one of the following is not a search engine?

(A) Google

(B) Chrome

(C) Yahoo

(D) Bing

Answer: (B)

2015 june

109 Which of the following represents one billion characters?

(A) Terabyte (B) Kilobyte

(C) Megabyte (D) Gigabyte

Answer: D

Notes

One million=1,000,000

one billion=1,000,000,000=1000³

1 byte may hold 1 character

1000 bytes=1 kilobyte

1000² bytes=1 megabyte

1000³ bytes=1 gigabyte

110 Which one of the following represents the binary equivalent of the decimal number 25?

(A) 11011 (B) 10101

(C) 01101 (D) 11001

Answer: D

111 Encoding or scrambling data for transmission across a network is known as:

(A) Decryption (B) Protection

(C) Detection (D) Encryption

Answer: D

112 Which of the following is not an output device?

(A) Keyboard (B) Printer

(C) Speaker (D) Monitor

Answer: A

113 Which of the following is not open source software?

(A) Apache HTTP server (B) Internet explorer

(C) Fedora Linux (D) Open office

Answer: B The term "open source" refers to something people can modify and share because its design is publicly accessible.

Open-source software (OSS) is computer software with its source code made available with a license in which the copyright holder provides the rights to study, change, and distribute the software to anyone and for any purpose. Open-source software may be developed in a collaborative public manner. According to scientists who studied it, open-source software is a prominent example of open collaboration. The term is often written without a hyphen as "open source software".

Open-source software development, or collaborative development from multiple independent sources, generates an increasingly more diverse scope of design perspective than any one company is capable of developing and sustaining long term. A 2008 report by the Standish Group states that adoption of open-source software models has resulted in savings of about $60 billion (£48 billion) per year to consumers

Some examples of Open Source Software

Accounting:

SQL-Ledger (accounting system)

Anti-virus:

ClamAV

Databases:

LDAP
MySQL (database)
PostgreSQL (relational database with ability to do stored procedures)

Knowledge Management:

Plone (open source content management system)
Knowledge Tree

Domain Name Servers:

Bind
PowerDNS

Telephony:

Asterisk (A Phone system [PBX] that also supports Voice Over IP technology)
Elastix
FreePBX
Trixbox CE

E-mail Servers:

PostFix
QMail
Sendmail

File Servers:

FreeNAS
OpenFiler
Samba

Medical Software:

http://www.oemr.org
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_open_source_healthcare_software

Other Valuable Systems (servers & desktops):

Apache (web server)
CentOS (Linux distribution from Red Hat's development efforts)
Fedora (Linux destop system)
JBoss (J2EE server for Enterprise Java Development)
Slackware (Linux distribution)
Tomcat (Java servlet container)
Ubuntu (a Linux desktop operating system)
Zope (Content management system and portal)

Productivity Software:

Evolution (calendar, contact manager and e-mail client)
Firefox (web browser)
Gimp (image manipulation program)
Open Office (word processor, spreadsheet, etc.)
Thunderbird (e-mail client, news aggregator, etc.)

Programming Languages:

C, C++, Mono, PHP, Python, Perl, Ruby, TcL

Spam Filtering:

AmavisD
PostGrey
SpamAssign

Routing/Networking:

DHCPD
IPTables
PF Sense

Virtualization:

KVM
Xen

This is strictly a small example of some open source software. This is a brief list of a few products which are open sourced to the world and is by no means: a complete list

Dec 2015

114 Which of the following is an instant messaging application ?

(a) WhatsApp

(b) Google Talk

(c) Viber

Select the correct answer from the codes given below:

(A) (a) and (b) only (B) (b) and (c) only

(C) (a) only (D) (a), (b) and (c)

Answer: D

115. In a Computer a byte generally consists of:

(A) 4 bits (B) 8 bits

(C) 16 bits (D) 10 bits

Answer: B

116. Which of the following is not an input device?

(A) Microphone (B) Keyboard

(C) Joystick (D) Monitor

Answer: D

117. Which of the following is an open source software?

(A) MS Word (B) Windows

(C) Mozilla Firefox (D) Acrobat Reader

Answer: C

Mozilla Firefox (or simply Firefox) is a free and open-source web browser developed by the Mozilla Foundation and its subsidiary the Mozilla Corporation. Firefox is available for Windows, macOS and Linux operating systems, with its Firefox for Android available for Android (formerly Firefox for mobile, it also ran on the discontinued Firefox OS), and uses the Gecko layout engine to render web pages, which implements current and anticipated web standards.

118. Which of the following enables us to send the same letter to different persons in MS Word?

(A) Mail join (B) Mail copy

(C) Mail insert (D) Mail merge

Answer: D

July 2016

119. The statement “the study, design, development, implementation, support or management of computer-based information systems, particularly software applications and computer Hardware” refers to

(1) Information Technology (IT)

(2) Information and Collaborative Technology (ICT)

(3) Information and Data Technology (IDT)

(4) Artificial Intelligence (AI)
Answer: 1

120 the binary equivalent of the decimal number 48 is 110000, then the binary equivalent of the decimal number 51 is given by

(1) 110011
(2) 110010
(3) 110001
(4) 110100
Answer 1

121 process of copying files to a CD-ROM is known as

(1) Burning
(2) Zipping
(3) Digitizing
(4) Ripping
Answer 1

122 An unsolicited e-mail message sent to many recipients at once is a

(1) Worm
(2) Virus
(3) Threat
(4) Spam
Answer 4

123 _________ is a type of memory circuitry that holds the computer’s start-up routine.

(1) RIM (Read Initial Memory)
(2) RAM (Random Access Memory)
(3) ROM (Read Only Memory)
(4) Cache Memory
Answer: 3

124 An ASCII is a character-encoding scheme that is employed by personal computers in order to represent various characters, numbers and control keys that the computer user selects on the keyboard. ASCII is an acronym for

(1) American Standard Code for Information Interchange

(2) American Standard Code for Intelligent Information

(3) American Standard Code for Information Integrity

(4) American Standard Code for Isolated Information

Answer: 1

August 2016

125. Which of the following statements regarding the features of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is/are true ?

I. ICT are the main instruments for the creation of computer networks and the applications based on them.

II. ICT support the spread of information and knowledge, separating the content from the place where it belongs physically.

III. The digital and virtual nature of most of ICT products allow the expenditure for them to be maximized.

Codes : (1) I and II only
(2) I and III only
(3) II and III only
(4) I, II and III
Answer 1

126. If one GigaByte is equal to 2^30 Bytes of data storage, then 1024 TeraBytes is equal to _____ bits of data storage.

(1) 2^50 (2) 2^53 (3) 2^40 (4) 2^56
Answer 1

Conversion table
Traditional units					Decimal for comparison
Name	Symbol	Binary	Number of bytes	Equal to	Name	IEC	Decimal	Number of bits	Equal to
Kilobyte	kB	2¹⁰	1,024	1024 B	Kilobit	kbit	10³	1,000	1000 bit
Megabyte	MB	2²⁰	1,048,576	1024 kB	Megabit	Mbit	10⁶	1,000,000	1000 kbit
Gigabyte	GB	2³⁰	1,073,741,824	1024 MB	Gigabit	Gbit	10⁹	1,000,000,000	1000 Mbit
Terabyte	TB	2⁴⁰	1,099,511,627,776	1024 GB	Terabit	Tbit	10¹²	1,000,000,000,000	1000 Gbit
Petabyte	PB	2⁵⁰	1,125,899,906,842,624	1024 TB	Petabit	Pbit	10¹⁵	1,000,000,000,000,000	1000 Tbit
Exabyte	EB	2⁶⁰	1,152,921,504,606,846,976	1024 PB	Exabit	Ebit	10¹⁸	1,000,000,000,000,000,000	1000 Pbit
Zettabyte	ZB	2⁷⁰	1,180,591,620,717,411,303,424	1024 EB	Zettabit	Zbit	10²¹	1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000	1000 Ebit
Yottabyte^[	YB	2⁸⁰	1,208,925,819,614,629,174,706,176	1024 ZB	Yottabit	Ybit	10²⁴	1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000	1000 Zbit

127 The software used to navigate through the web is known as

(1) Website
(2) Web Browser
(3) Internet
(4) World Wide Web 38.
Answer 2
A web browser is a software application for retrieving, presenting and traversing information resources on the World Wide Web. An information resource is identified by a Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) and may be a web page, image, video, or other piece of content.Hyperlinks present in resources enable users easily to navigate their browsers to related resources. A web browser can also be defined as an application software or program designed to enable users to access, retrieve and view documents and other resources on the Internet.

एक वेब ब्राउज़र वर्ल्ड वाइड वेब पर सूचना संसाधनों को पुनर्प्राप्त करने, पेश करने और उन्हें चलाने के लिए एक सॉफ्टवेयर अनुप्रयोग है। एक जानकारी संसाधन की पहचान यूनिफ़ॉर्म रिसोर्स आइडेंटिफ़ायर (यूआरआई) द्वारा की जाती है और वेब पेज, इमेज, वीडियो या सामग्री के अन्य भाग हो सकती है। संसाधनों में मौजूद हाइपरलिंक उपयोगकर्ताओं को आसानी से अपने ब्राउज़रों को संबंधित संसाधनों पर नेविगेट करने में सक्षम बनाता है एक वेब ब्राउज़र को एक एप्लिकेशन सॉफ्टवेयर या प्रोग्राम के रूप में भी परिभाषित किया जा सकता है जो उपयोगकर्ताओं को इंटरनेट पर दस्तावेजों और अन्य संसाधनों को एक्सेस, पुनः प्राप्त करने और देखने के लिए सक्षम बनाया गया है।

128 With regard to e-mail, what does Bcc : mean ?

(1) Blind Computer Communication : - The users specified in the Bcc : field will get the e-mail and see the addresses in the to : and cc : fields.

(2) Blind Carbon Copy : - The users specified in the Bcc : field will get the e-mail and see the addresses in the to : and cc : fields.

(3) Blind Computer Communication :- The users specified in the Bcc : field will get the e-mail but it will be an audio file because this is how blind people get e-mail.

(4) Blind Carbon Copy : The users specified in the Bcc : field will get the e-mail but will not see the addresses in the to : and cc : fields.

Answer 2

(2) ब्लाइंड कार्बन प्रतिलिपि: - बीसीसी: फ़ील्ड में निर्दिष्ट उपयोगकर्ता ई-मेल प्राप्त करेंगे और इन पते को देखें: और सीसी: फ़ील्ड

CC vs. BCC

When you CC people on an email, the CC list is visible to all other recipients. For example, if you CC bob@example.com and jake@example.com on an email, Bob and Jake will both know that the other received the email, as well.

BCC stands for “blind carbon copy.” Unlike with CC, no one but the sender can see the list of BCC recipients. For example, if you have bob@example.com and jake@example.com in the BCC list, neither Bob nor Jake will know that the other received the email.

Someone on the BCC list can see everything else, including the CC list and the contents of the email. However, the BCC list is secret—no one can see this list except the sender. If a person is on the BCC list, they’ll see only their own email on the BCC list.

For example, let’s say your boss wants you to email a customer in response to a complaint. You’d put the customer’s email address in the To field and your boss’s email address in the CC field, so your boss would receive a copy of the email. If you didn’t want the customer to see your boss’s email address, you’d put your boss’s address in the BCC field instead.

उदाहरण के लिए, मान लें कि आपका बॉस चाहता है कि आप शिकायत के जवाब में एक ग्राहक को ईमेल करें। आप ग्राहक के ईमेल पते को फ़ील्ड में और अपने बॉस के ईमेल पते को सीसी फ़ील्ड में डालते हैं, इसलिए आपके बॉस को ईमेल की एक प्रति प्राप्त होगी। अगर आप नहीं चाहते कि ग्राहक आपके बॉस के ईमेल पते को देख सके, तो आप अपने मालिक के पते को बीसीसी फील्ड में डाल देंगे।

129. Random Access Memory (RAM), a form of computer storage, is a ______ memory.

(1) Non-volatile
(2) Volatile
(3) Permanent
(4) Secondary

Answer 2

Read-only memory, or ROM, is a form of data storage in computers and other electronic devices that can not be easily altered or reprogrammed. RAM is referred to as volatile memory and is lost when the power is turned off whereas ROM in non-volatile and the contents are retained even after the power is switched off.

Random-access memory, or RAM, is a form of data storage that can be accessed randomly at any time, in any order and from any physical location in contrast to other storage devices, such as hard drives, where the physical location of the data determines the time taken to retrieve it. RAM is measured in megabytes and the speed is measured in nanoseconds and RAM chips can read data faster than ROM.

Comparison chart

**RAM versus ROM comparison chart**
	RAM	ROM
Definition	Random Access Memory or RAM is a form of data storage that can be accessed randomly at any time, in any order and from any physical location., allowing quick access and manipulation.	Read-only memory or ROM is also a form of data storage that can not be easily altered or reprogrammed.Stores instuctions that are not nescesary for re-booting up to make the computer operate when it is switched off.They are hardwired.
Stands for	Random Access Memory	Read-only memory
Use	RAM allows the computer to read data quickly to run applications. It allows reading and writing.	ROM stores the program required to initially boot the computer. It only allows reading.
Volatility	RAM is volatile i.e. its contents are lost when the device is powered off.	It is non-volatile i.e. its contents are retained even when the device is powered off.
Types	The two main types of RAM are static RAM and dynamic RAM.	The types of ROM include PROM, EPROM and EEPROM.

Differences in use

RAM allows the computer to read data quickly and efficiently to be able to run applications efficiently, whereas ROM stores the program required to initially boot the computer and perform diagnostics. RAM is a common type of memory found in computers and printers, and can go up to a few gigabytes. ROM is usually only a few thousand bytes of storage in personal computers. RAM is primary memory and volatile

Different Types of RAM vs ROM

ROMs are integrated circuits that contain data and most often cannot be altered. There are some types that can be somewhat modified that include programmable ROM (PROM), erasable programmable ROM (EPROM), electrically erasable programmable ROM (EEPROM) and Flash, which is a type of EEPROM. PROM is a type of ROM that can be programmed only once by a special device and uses high voltages. EPROM can be rewritten using UV radiation, whereas EEPROM can be rewritten electrically and such devices do not require to be removed from the computer. Flash drives are modern version of EEPROM and fastest to erase and rewrite. Some other common types of ROM are CD-ROM, CD-R and CD-RW which is used to store media and music files.The main types of RAM include static RAM (SRAM), dynamic RAM (DRAM). Static RAM is more expensive and has more capacity for storage than dynamic RAM that has to be refreshed more often, and is thus slower.

Jan 2017

130. Read the following two statements :
I : Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is considered a subset of Information Technology (IT).
II : The ‘right to use’ a piece of software is termed as copyright.
Which of the above statement(s) is/are CORRECT ?

(1) Both I and II
(2) Neither I nor II
(3) II only
(4) I only

Notes: Information technology (IT) is the application of computers to store, study, retrieve, transmit, and manipulate data,[1] or information, often in the context of a business or other enterprise.[2] IT is considered a subset of information and communications technology (ICT).

Copyright is a legal right created by the law of a country that grants the author of an original work exclusive right for its use and distribution. This means whatever content the author created cannot be used or published by anyone else without the consent of the author.

131. Which of the following correctly lists computer memory types from highest to lowest speed ?

(1) Secondary Storage; Main Memory (RAM); Cache Memory; CPU Registers

(2) CPU Registers; Cache Memory; Secondary Storage; Main Memory (RAM)

(3) CPU Registers; Cache Memory; Main Memory (RAM); Secondary Storage

(4) Cache Memory; CPU Registers; Main Memory (RAM); Secondary Storage

Answer 3

Computer memory can be classified in the below given hierarchy:

1) Internal register: Internal register in a CPU is used for holding variables and temporary results. Internal registers have a very small storage; however they can be accessed instantly. Accessing data from the internal register is the fastest way to access memory.

2) Cache: Cache is used by the CPU for memory which is being accessed over and over again. Instead of pulling it every time from the main memory, it is put in cache for fast access. It is also a smaller memory, however, larger than internal register.

Cache is further classified to L1, L2 and L3:

a) L1 cache: It is accessed without any delay.

b) L2 cache: It takes more clock cycles to access than L1 cache.

c) L3 cache: It takes more clock cycles to access than L2 cache.

3) Main memory or RAM (Random Access Memory): It is a type of the computer memory and is a hardware component. It can be increased provided the operating system can handle it. Typical PCs these days use 8 GB of RAM. It is accessed slowly as compared to cache.

4) Hard disk: A hard disk is a hardware component in a computer. Data is kept permanently in this memory. Memory from hard disk is not directly accessed by the CPU, hence it is slower. As compared with RAM, hard disk is cheaper per bit.

5) Magnetic tape: Magnetic tape memory is usually used for backing up large data. When the system needs to access a tape, it is first mounted to access the data. When the data is accessed, it is then unmounted. The memory access time is slower in magnetic tape and it usually takes few minutes to access a tape.

Below given figure shows the hierarchy of computer memory:

Computer memory hierarchy: Internal register, cache, RAM, hard disk, magnetic tape

132. Which of the following is a characteristic of Web2.0 applications ?

(1) Multiple users schedule their time to use Web2.0 applications one by one.

(2) Web2.0 applications are focused on the ability for people to collaborate and share information online.

(3) Web2.0 applications provide users with content rather than facilitating users to create it.

(4) Web2.0 applications use only static pages.
Answer 2

Examples of Web 2.0 features include social networking sites and social media sites (e.g.,Facebook), blogs, wikis, folksonomies ("tagging" keywords on websites and links), video sharing sites(e.g., YouTube), hosted services, Web applications ("apps"), collaborative consumption platforms, and mashup applications.

133. With regard to a word processing software, the process of combining static information in a publication together with variable information in a data source to create one merged publication is called

(1) Electronic mail
(2) Data sourcing
(3) Mail merge
(4) Spam mail
Answer 3

134. DVD technology uses an optical media to store the digital data. DVD is an acronym for

(1) Digital Vector Disc
(2) Digital Volume Disc
(3) Digital Versatile Disc
(4) Digital Visualization Disc
Answer 3

135 Which of the following statement(s) is/are TRUE?

S1: The decimal number 11 is larger than the hexadecimal number 11.

S2: In the binary number 1110.101, the fractional part has the decimal value as 0.625.

(1) S1 only

(2) S2 only

(3) Both S1 and S2

(4) Neither S1 nor S2

Answer: 2

Notes

To convert Hexadecimal number to Decimal number, multiply every digit with 16 power of digit location. Then, sum all the multipliers.

Decimal representation of hexadecimal number 11 = 1x16¹+1x16⁰

= 16+1 = 17

To convert decimal fraction to binary, begin with the decimal fraction and multiply by 2

Because .625 x 2 = 1.25, the first binary digit to the right of the point is a 1.

Because .25 x 2 = 0.50, the second binary digit to the right of the point is a 0.

Because .50 x 2 = 1.00, the third binary digit to the right of the point is a 1.

In fact, we do not need to multiply the fraction again, because we had 0 as the fractional part of our result there.

Hence the representation of .625 = .101 (base 2).

हेक्साडेसिमल संख्या को दशमलव संख्या में परिवर्तित करने के लिए, प्रत्येक अंकों को 16 शक्ति अंकों के स्थान पर गुणा करें। फिर, सभी मल्टीप्लायरों को जोड़ दें
हेक्साडेसिमल संख्या 11 = 1x161 + 1x160 का दशमलव प्रतिनिधित्व
= 16 + 1 = 17

दशमलव अंश को द्विआधारी में परिवर्तित करने के लिए, दशमलव अंश से शुरू करें और 2 से गुणा करें
क्योंकि .625 x 2 = 1.25, बिंदु के दायीं ओर पहला बाइनरी अंक 1 है।
क्योंकि .25 x 2 = 0.50, बिंदु के दायीं ओर दूसरा द्विआधारी अंक 0 है।
क्योंकि .50 x 2 = 1.00, बिंदु के दाईं ओर के तीसरे बाइनरी अंक 1 है।
वास्तव में, हमें फिर से अंश को गुणा करने की ज़रूरत नहीं है, क्योंकि हमारे पास 0 के परिणामस्वरूप अंश के रूप में 0 था।
इसलिए .625 = .101 (आधार 2) का प्रतिनिधित्व

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Information and communication technology all notes | CBSE UGC NET | ICT

Operating Systems and Data Storage Based

Connecting to the Internet Network Based

Some Common Email Abbreviations

Reason for use of binary system in computers

1. Number Systems

1.1 Decimal (Base 10) Number System

1.2 Binary (Base 2) Number System

1.3 Hexadecimal (Base 16) Number System

1.4 Conversion from Hexadecimal to Binary

1.5 Conversion from Binary to Hexadecimal

1.6 Conversion from Base r to Decimal (Base 10)

1.7 Conversion from Decimal (Base 10) to Base r

1.8 General Conversion between 2 Base Systems with Fractional Part

1.9 Exercises (Number Systems Conversion)

2. Computer Memory & Data Representation

Types of data representation

Binary number system

Converting hexadecimal numbers to binary numbers

Symbolic representation using coding schemes

Binary arithmetic operations

Convert Negative Numbers to Binary

Step 1: Divide Until You Reach Zero

Step 2: Derive Result

Step 3: Extend Binary Sequence

Step 4: 1’s Complement Representation

Step 5: Add One

Step 6: Final Answer Format

· Interpret 11011011 as a two's complement binary number, and give its decimal equivalent.

1. First, note that the number is negative, since it starts with a 1.

2. Change the sign to get the magnitude of the number.

3. Convert the magnitude to decimal: 001001012 = 2516 = 2×16 + 5 = 3710.

4. Since the original number was negative, the final result is -37.

· Interpret 01101001 as a two's complement binary number, and give its decimal equivalent. The number is positive, so simply convert it to decimal: 011010012 = 6916 = 6×16 + 9 = 10510.

· Interpret 11110010 as a two's complement binary number, and give its decimal equivalent.

· 000011102 = e16 = 0×16 + 14 = 1410. Answer: -14.

· Interpret 10011100 as a two's complement binary number, and give its decimal equivalent.

· 011001002 = 6416 = 6×16 + 4 = 10010. Answer: -100.

· Interpret 01010111 as a two's complement binary number, and give its decimal equivalent. 010101112 = 5716 = 5×16 + 7 = 8710.

· 00000000 is 0,

· 00000001 is 1,

· 00000010 is 2,

· 00000011 is 3,

· 00000100 is 4,

· ...

· 11111111 is 255

· 00000001 == 1 and 10000001 == -1

· 01000010 == 66 and 11000010 == -66

· 01111111 == 127 and 11111111 == -127

· 00000001 == 1 and 11111110 == -1

· 01000010 == 66 and 10111101 == -66

· 01111111 == 127 and 10000000 == -127

· 00000001 == 1 and 11111111 == -1

· 01000010 == 66 and 10111110 == -66

· 01111111 == 127 and 1000001 == -127

· 10000000 == -128

· Because it has the widest range: -128...127, while trivial approach and ones' complement have -127...127

· Zero is well defined:

· In two's complement only 00000000 is zero

· In trivial approach both 00000000 and 10000000 are zero

· In ones' complement both 00000000 and 11111111 are zero

· Addition and subtraction is identical as with unsigned numbers, so CPU doesn't need additional instructions for adding signed numbers.

Binary subtraction

Subtraction using twos compliments.

IBM/PC keyboards

Apple keyboards

IPv4 Vs IPv6

IPv4 & IPv6 Q&A

loge(n) / loge(2)

Definition - What does Post Office Protocol (POP) mean?

Dynamic or Static

Some examples of Open Source Software

Accounting:

Anti-virus:

Databases:

Knowledge Management:

Domain Name Servers:

Telephony:

E-mail Servers:

File Servers:

3. Convert the magnitude to decimal: 00100101₂ = 25₁₆ = 2×16 + 5 = 37₁₀.

· Interpret 01101001 as a two's complement binary number, and give its decimal equivalent. The number is positive, so simply convert it to decimal: 01101001₂ = 69₁₆ = 6×16 + 9 = 105₁₀.

· 00001110₂ = e₁₆ = 0×16 + 14 = 14₁₀. Answer: -14.

· 01100100₂ = 64₁₆ = 6×16 + 4 = 100₁₀. Answer: -100.

· Interpret 01010111 as a two's complement binary number, and give its decimal equivalent. 01010111₂ = 57₁₆ = 5×16 + 7 = 87₁₀.

· `00000000` is 0,

· `00000001` is 1,

· `00000010` is 2,

· `00000011` is 3,

· `00000100` is 4,

· `11111111` is 255

· `00000001` == 1 and `10000001` == -1

· `01000010` == 66 and `11000010` == -66

· `01111111` == 127 and `11111111` == -127

· `00000001` == 1 and `11111110` == -1

· `01000010` == 66 and `10111101` == -66

· `01111111` == 127 and `10000000` == -127

· `00000001` == 1 and `11111111` == -1

· `01000010` == 66 and `10111110` == -66

· `01111111` == 127 and `1000001` == -127

· `10000000` == -128

· In two's complement only `00000000` is zero

· In trivial approach both `00000000` and `10000000` are zero

· In ones' complement both `00000000` and `11111111` are zero

log_e(n) / log_e(2)